GIFT   OF 
Publisher 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 


HISTORY  OF 
AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


Courtesy  of  the  Edgar  Allan  Poe   Memorial  Association,  Baltimore 
EDGAR   ALLAN   POE 

The  new  statue  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  by  Sir  Moses  Ezekiel  of  Richmond,  Virginia. 
It  was  presented  to  the  city  of  Baltimore  by  the  Edgar  Allan  Poe  Memorial  Association. 


HISTORY  OF 
AMERICAN 
LITERATURE 


By 

LEONIDAS  WARREN  PAYNE,  JR. 

Associate  Professor  of  English  in  The  University  of  Texas 

Author  of  "Southern  Literary  Readings,"  and 

"Selections  from   American 

Literature" 


RAND  McNALLY  &  COMPANY 
Chicago  New  York 


Copyright,  IQIQ,  by 
LEONIDAS  WARREN  PAYNE,  JE. 


/ 


THE   CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Preface          -  vii 
I.     THE   COLONIAL   PERIOD,    1607-1765 

General  Characteristics 

Literature  in  the  Southern  Colonies 3 

Literature  in  the  New  England  Colonies I2 

The  New  England  Annalists  and  Historians      ....  14 

The  New  England  Poets l8 

The  New  England  Theologians 22 

Literature  in  the  Middle  Colonies 3° 

General  Reference  Books  for  American  Literature        ....  4° 

Special  Reference  Books  for  Colonial  Literature 41 

II.     THE    REVOLUTIONARY    AND    FORMATIVE    PERIOD, 

1765-1800 

Preliminary  Statement 44 

Historical  Background 45 

The  Orators •     •      •      •  4^ 

Political  Writers 51 

The  Poetry •      •      •      • 

Drama  and  Fiction 79 

Special  Reference  Books  for  Revolutionary  Literature       ...  85 

III.     ARTISTIC  OR  CREATIVE  PERIOD,    1800-1900 

Preliminary  Statement °° 

1 .  The  New  York  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  Group  .      .  .89 

The  Major  Writers 89 

The  Minor  New  York  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  Poets      .  127 
The  New  York  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  Essayists  and 

General  Prose  Writers J4° 

The  New  York  Novelists  and  Story  Writers 145 

2.  The  New  England  Group -  .      .  149 

Preliminary  Survey '    -      •  J49 

The  Rise  of  Unitarianism J49 

The  Transcendental  Movement 151 

The  Rise  of  the  Doctrine  of  Abolition 155 


571769 


vi  History  of  American  Literature 

PAGE 

The  Major  New  England  Writers 156 

The  New  England  Historians  and  Essayists 224 

The  Minor  Poets  of  New  England 229 

The  New  Poetry  in  New  England 234 

The  New  England  Writers  of  Fiction 239 

3.  The  Southern  Group 246 

Preliminary  Survey    .      .      . 246 

Southern  Orators        .  - 251 

The  Major  Southern  Poets 253 

Minor  Southern  Poets 282 

Southern  Writers  of  Fiction 290 

4.  The  Central  and  Far  Western  Group 312 

Preliminary  Survey 312 

The  Major  Western  Writers 320 

Other  Western  Poets 348 

The  New  Poetry  in  the  West 354 

Minor  Western  Writers  of  Fiction 362 

Final  Words 372 

Special    Reference    Books    for    Nineteenth    Century    American 

Literature 375 

Chronological  Chart  of  Chief  I9th  Century  American  Writers     .  378 

Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  and  Special  Study  Courses  in 

American  Literature 382 

Colonial  Period 386 

Revolutionary  Period 390 

Artistic  or  Creative  Period 393 

Suggested  Subjects  for  Essays 401 

Index 407 


THE   PREFACE 

It  is  now  an  accepted  doctrine  among  teachers  of  English 
that  the  study  of  the  history  of  literature  should  take  a 
comparatively  small  part  of  the  high-school  student's  time 
and  that  the  first-hand  study  of  the  literature  itself  should 
receive  his  largest  effort.  But  it  is  also  generally  recog 
nized  that  in  order  to  approach  intelligently  the  actual 
literature  of  any  period  or  country  and  to  gain  a  clear 
grasp  of  its  progress  as  a  whole,  the  young  student  will 
need  at  least  a  brief  handbook  to  set  before  him  in 
organized  form  the  essential  facts  of  the  literary  history 
of  that  period  or  country.  American  literature,  particularly 
in  the  two  earlier  periods,  is  but  an  interpretation  of  the 
political,  social,  and  industrial  life  of  the  growing  nation. 
In  a  brief  survey  of  these  early  periods  it  will  only  be  neces 
sary  to  refresh  the  high-school  student's  memory  regarding 
the  historical  backgrounds  and  to  list  for  him  the  chief 
writers  of  the  peculiar  kinds  of  literature  produced  during 
these  periods,  giving  an  occasional  quotation  from  the  more 
important  literary  monuments  in  order  to  satisfy  the  stu 
dent's  antiquarian  interest  and  intellectual  curiosity  as  to 
the  sorts  of  material  which  our  ancestors  produced  in  these 
periods.  In  the  later  period,  beginning  about  1800  and 
extending  down  to  the  present,  the  student  will  need  a 
somewhat  fuller  treatment  of  the  artistic  or  permanent 
literature,  mainly  because  the  aim  of  the  teacher  here  will 
be  to  lead  the  student  to  read  more  deeply  in  this  literature, 
both  because  of  its  nearness  to  him  and  because  of  its 
greater  artistic  importance. 

The  plan  of  this  History  of  American  Literature,  then, 
is  to  treat  briefly  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  periods, 
giving  the  essential  facts  of  the  literary  history,  together 
with  a  few  illustrative  quotations  from  such  of  the  authors  as 
may  be  of  most  interest  to  young  students;  and  to  treat  in 
more  detail  the  important  literary  movements  and  figures 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  bringing  the  record  down  through 
practically  the  first  two  decades  of  the  twentieth  century. 
In  this  later  literature  the  student  will  find  much  that  will 
appeal  directly  to  his  interests,  and  here,  too,  the  teacher  will 


viii  The  Preface 

naturally  find  the  bulk  of  the  literary  material  to  be  placed 
before  the  high-school  students  for  closer  study  and  analysis. 
Hence  it  will  be  well  to  organize  into  more  definitive  groups 
and  schools  the  important  writers  of  this  later  period,  and 
to  give  a  fuller  treatment  of  both  the  major  and  the  minor 
authors  whose  works  undoubtedly  go  to  make  up  the 
great  body  of  our  artistic  and  creative  literature. 

No  course  in  American  literature  can  be  satisfactorily 
based  on  the  history  alone.  As  has  already  been  said,  the 
selections  themselves  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
student  if  he  is  to  gain  any  permanent  knowledge  of  the 
development  of  our  national  literature.  In  order  to  meet 
the  widespread  demand  for  a  single  volume  containing  the 
choicest  American  classics  edited  in  such  a  form  as  to  make 
them  easily  comprehensible  to  young  students,  I  have  pre 
pared  a  companion  volume  to  this  History  of  American 
Literature,  under  the  title  of  Selections  from  American 
Literature.  The  two  volumes,  together  with  such  additional 
outside  reading  as  may  be  assigned,  will  make  a  fairly 
complete  elementary  course  in  American  literature. 

I  wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  three  of  my 
colleagues  in  the  English  department  of  the  University  of 
Texas — namely,  Professors  Killis  Campbell  and  Robert 
Adger  Law  and  Dr.  Earl  L.  Bradsher,  each  of  whom  has 
saved  me  from  numerous  pitfalls  by  reading  the  material  in 
manuscript  or  in  proof  sheets.  I  am  also  deeply  indebted 
to  Professor  Percy  H.  Boynton,  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
who  read  the  manuscript  in  its  initial  form  and  made  many 
valuable  suggestions  for  its  improvement.  My  thanks  are 
also  due  to  Edgar  Lee  Masters,  Carl  Sandburg,  and 
Amy  Lowell  for  permission  to  use  complete  short  poems 
from  their  copyrighted  books;  to  the  Houghton  Mifflin 
Company  for  permission  to  use  the  poem  "Life"  from 
the  works  of  Edward  Rowland  Sill;  to  Edwin  Markham 
for  permission  to  reprint  entire  his  latest  revision  of  "The 
Man  with  the  Hoe" ;  and  to  Julian  Richard  Hovey  for  per 
mission  to  quote  two  stanzas  from  "The  Call  of  the  Bugles" 
by  Richard  Hovey. 

L.  W.  PAYNE,  JR. 
Austin,  Texas, 
January, 


HISTORY   OF 
AMERICAN    LITERATURE 

I.     THE   COLONIAL   PERIOD,  1607-1765 

GENERAL   CHARACTERISTICS 

Historical  Background.  The  colonial  period  of  our 
literature  extends  from  the  first  permanent  settlement  at 
Jamestown,  Virginia,  in  1607,  to  the  calling  of  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress  in  1765.  It  is  the  period  of  beginnings,  the 
seedtime,  as  it  were,  for  the  later  growth  into  flower  and 
fruitage  during  the  period  of  our  independent  national  life. 
The  first  business  of  the  colonists  was  to  establish  themselves 
on  the  new  continent — to  clear  the  forests  and  build  homes, 
open  up  farms  and  pasture  lands,  construct  roads  and  estab 
lish  means  of  transportation  and  communication,  overcome 
the  hostile  Indian  tribes,  and  organize  all  the  forces  for  a 
new  religious,  social,  and  economic  life.  This  constructive 
and  formative  work  naturally  consumed  the  interests  and 
energies  of  the  colonists  so  largely  that  little  time  was  left 
for  the  development  of  literature.  Moreover,  there  was  no 
unity  of  government  or  of  purpose  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
colonial  period.  Different  European  nations  had  established 
colonies  on  the  new  continent,  and  a  struggle  for  supremacy 
inevitably  followed.  The  history  of  the  colonial  period 
gives  us  the  details  of  this  struggle  for  supremacy,  a  struggle 
which,  after  narrowing  down  to  a  fierce  conflict  between 
France  and  England,  was  finally  settled  in  England's  favor 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1763. 

Tendencies  toward  union.  Naturally  during  the  latter 
part  of  this  struggle  the  English  colonies  were  drawn  into  a 

[i] 


Literature 


closer  union  for  defense  against  their  common  enemy,  the 
French  and  their  Indian  allies;  and  this  tendency  toward 
union  and  self-defense  very  soon  began  to  express  itself  in 
opposition  to  the  restrictive  and  oppressive  policies  of 
government  imposed  upon  the  colonies  by  the  mother 
country,  England.  The  second  large  task  of  the  American 
colonists,  then,  was  that  of  consolidation  and  united  action 
for  the  purposes  of  obtaining  absolute  independence  from 
foreign  domination.  In  1765,  two  years  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  the  Stamp  Act  was  passed  by  the 
English  Parliament,  and  within  a  few  months  a  colonial 
congress,  called  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  met  in  Philadel 
phia  to  protest  against  this  unjust  method  of  taxation. 
This  significant  event  may  be  said  to  mark  the  beginning  of 
formal  opposition  to  English  sovereignty  over  the  American 
colonies,  and  may  be  considered  as  marking  the  close  of  the 
colonial  period. 

Nature  of  colonial  literature.  The  literature  of  the 
colonial  period  is,  as  we  might  expect,  given  over  largely  to 
purely  descriptive,  historical,  and  theological  writing.  The 
new  country,  the  strange  kinds  of  life  revealed  here,  and 
the  incidents  attendant  upon  the  hardships  and  dangers  of 
pioneer  settlement  furnished  the  first  material  for  record. 
Geographical  and  descriptive  narratives  and  theological 
discussions,  then,  make  up  the  great  body  of  the  written 
record  of  the  period.  Practically  no  purely  artistic  literature 
was  produced.  The  little  poetry  that  was  composed  was 
for  the  most  part  crude  and  bungling  and  based  on  artificial 
foreign  models.  No  purely  imaginative  literature  was 
written  during  these  strenuous  times,  and  hence  the  written 
records  which  have  come  down  to  us,  important  as  they  are 
from  an  historical  or  antiquarian  standpoint,  have  little  or 
no  artistic  value  or  purely  literary  appeal  for  modern  readers. 

Method  of  treatment.  In  a  brief  survey  of  the  principal 
literary  products  of  the  colonial  period,  we  may  conveniently 


The  Colonial  Period  3 

consider  them  under  three  groups — namely,  those  in  the 
Southern  Colonies,  in  the  New  England  Colonies,  and  in 
the  Middle  Colonies.  We  must  constantly  bear  in  mind 
the  significant  fact  that  during  this  period  there  was  not 
one  central  government  in  any  of  the  geographical  divisions, 
but  many  and  diverse  governments  in  each  of  them.  Hence 
we  need  not  look  for  a  national  or  American  spirit  in  our 
literature  until  the  colonies  shall  have  become  united  in  the 
struggle  against  foreign  domination.  The  early  literature 
was  quite  as  largely  English  as  American,  but  we  may  call 
it  American  because  it  deals  with  American  scene  and  his 
tory,  and  because  it  was  written  by  English  settlers  on 
American  soil,  and  partially,  particularly  in  the  last  half  of 
the  Colonial  period,  by  writers  who  were  born  and  educated 
in  America. 


LITERATURE  IN  THE  SOUTHERN  COLONIES 

Captain  John  Smith:  "A  True  Relation."  To  the  South 
ern  Colonies  belongs  the  primary  place  in  date,  though  not 
in  importance,  in  our  early  literature.  The  first  writer  of 
note  whose  work  may  be  called  American  in  color  and 
subject-matter  was  Captain  John  Smith  (1579-1631),  a 
native  of  Lincolnshire,  England.  Moved  by  the  typical 
Elizabethan  spirit  of  adventure  and  daring,  he  ran  away 
from  home  when  he  was  fifteen  years  old  and  became  a 
soldier  of  fortune.  After  passing  through  numerous  perilous 
and  romantic  adventures  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  during 
the  first  ten  years  of  his  travels,  he  returned  to  England  in 
time  to  join  the  Virginia  Expedition  in  1607.  The  next  year 
he  sent  back  to  England  a  long  letter,  which  was  published 
under  the  title,  A  True  Relation  of  Some  Occurrences  and 
Accidents  of  Noate  as  Hath  Hapned  Since  the  First  Planting 
of  the  Colony.  This  pamphlet  is  now  usually  regarded 
as  the  first  book  in  American  .  literature.  It  contains  an 


4  History  of  American  Literature 

account  of  the  first  year  in  the  life  of  the  Virginia  Colony, 
with  much  information  about  the  new  country,  its  inhabi 
tants,  its  geography,  and  the  hardships  and  dangers  suffered 
by  the  colonists,  particularly  in  their  contact  with  the 
savage.  Indians.  Naturally,  Captain  Smith  is  the  hero  of 
many  of  the  incidents  recorded.  The  account  is  written  in  a 
vivacious,  picturesque,  and  forceful  style,  and  the  book  is 
on  the  whole,  perhaps,  the  most  trustworthy  of  all  the 
writings  of  this  remarkable  man. 

Smith's  other  works.  Among  Captain  Smith's  numerous 
later  publications  may  be  mentioned  A  Map  of  Virginia 
(1612),  A  Description  of  New  England  (1616),  New  England's 
Trials  (1620-1622),  and  The  General  Historie  of  Virginia, 
New  England,  and  the  Summer  Isles  (1624).  It  is  interest 
ing  to  note  that  Smith  wrote  his  Description  of  New  England 
before  the  first  permanent  settlement  had  been  established 
in  that  part  of  America.  The  title  of  "Admiral  of  New 
England"  was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  English  govern 
ment,  and  he  proudly  bore  this  designation  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  even  though  it  amounted  to  nothing 
more  than  an  empty  honor.  Only  one  of  Smith's  later 
works  needs  to  be  discussed  in  more  detail. 

' '  The  General  Historie  of  Virginia,  New  England,  and  the 
Summer  Isles."  This  is  an  enlarged  and  more  highly 
colored  account  than  A  True  Relation,  and  was  written 
long  after  Captain  Smith  had  returned  to  England.  In 
this  later  volume  the  account  of  Captain  Smith's  rescue  by 
the  intercession  of  the  Indian  princess  Pocahontas  is  given. 
The  romantic  nature  of  this  incident,  no  mention  of  which 
is  made  in  Smith's  earlier  work,  A  True  Relation,  nor  in  any 
other  early  narrative,  has  caused  some  critics  to  question  the 
authenticity  of  the  Pocahontas  story  and  even  the  historical 
value  of  all  Captain  Smith's  writings.  In  fact,  The  General 
Historie  is  so  unreliable  that  nothing  in  it  can  be  accepted 
unless  supported  by  other  evidence.  We  should  not  hesitate, 


CAPTAIN  JOHN   SMITH 

From  the  margin  of  his  map  of  New  England  in  "  A  Description  of  New  England," 
London,  1616,  which  now  hangs  in  the  rooms  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society 
in  Boston. 


6  History  of  American  Literature 

however,  to  give  John  Smith  credit  for  the  exceedingly  interest 
ing  and  informing  nature  of  his  material  and  for  the  vivid 
and  dramatic  style  in  which  he  has  presented  it.  While  he 
cannot  in  any  sense  be  classed  as  a  great  writer,  he  unques 
tionably  will  be  remembered  as  the  first  Englishman  who 
successfully  made  literary  capital  of  American  scene  and  life. 
The  Pocahontas  story.  The  following  passage  taken  from 
The  General  Historic  will  illustrate  Smith's  style  and  also 
give  the  central  portion  of  the  Pocahontas  story : 

At  last  they  brought  him  to  Meronocomoco,  where  was  Powhalan, 
their  Emperor.  Here  more  than  two  hundred  of  those  grim  Courtiers 
stood  wondering  at  him,  as  he  had  beene  a  monster;  till  Powhatan 
and  his  trayne  had  put  themselues  in  their  greatest  braveries.  Before 
a  fire  vpon  a  seat  like  a  bedsted,  he  sat  covered  with  a  great  robe, 
made  of  Rarowcun  skinnes,  and  all  the  tayles  hanging  by.  On  either 
hand  did  sit  a  young  wench  of  16  or  18  yeares,  and  along  on  each  side 
the  house,  two  rowes  of  men,  and  behind  them  as  many  women,  with 
all  their  heads  and  shoulders  painted  red:  many  of  their  heads  bedecked 
with  the  white  downe  of  Birds;  but  every  one  with  something:  and  a 
great  chayne  of  white  beads  about  their  necks. 

At  his  entrance  before  the  King,  all  the  people  gaue  a  great  shout. 
The  Queene  of  Appamatuck  was  appointed  to  bring  him  water  to  wash 
his  hands,  and  another  brought  him  a  bunch  of  feathers,  in  stead  of  a 
Towell  to  dry  them:  having  feasted  him  after  their  best  barbarous 
manner  they  could,  a  long  consultation  was  held,  but  the  conclusion 
was,  two  great  stones  were  brought  before  Powhatan:  then  as  many  as 
could  layd  hands  on  him,  dragged  him  to  them,  and  thereon  laid  his 
head,  and  being  ready  with  their  clubs,  to  beate  out  his  braines,  Poca 
hontas  the  Kings  dearest  daughter,  when  no  intreaty  could  prevaile, 
got  his  head  in  her  armes,  and  laid  her  owne  vpon  his  to  saue  him  from 
death:  whereat  the  Emperour  was  contented  he  should  Hue  to  make 
him  hatchets,  and  her  bells,  beads,  and  copper;  for  they  thought  him 
as  well  of  all  occupations  as  themselues.  For  the  King  himself e  will 
make  his  owne  robes,  shooes,  bowes,  arrowes,  pots;  plant,  hunt,  or  doe 
any  thing  so  well  as  the  rest. 

William  Strachey.  Another  early  work  remarkable  for 
its  vivid  and  powerful  prose  description  is  a  True  Repertory 
fo  the  Wracke  and  Redemption  of  Sir  Thomas  Gates,  Knight, 


RUINS  OF  CHURCH  TOWER,   JAMESTOWN 


8  History  of  American  Literature 

upon  and  from  the  Hands  of  the  Bermudas  (1610).  The 
expedition  under  Sir  Thomas  Gates  arrived  at  Jamestown 
in  1 6 10  after  a  stormy  voyage  and  a  shipwreck  on  the  Ber 
muda  Islands.  William  Strachey,  who  seems  to  have  been 
secretary  of  the  expedition,  wrote  this  remarkably  realistic 
account  of  the  sea  storm  and  the  .wreck,  and  it  is  not  at  all 
to  be  wondered  at  that  Shakespeare  made  use  of  some  of  the 
picturesque  and  dramatic  phrases  of  this  narrative  when  he 
came  to  describe  the  storm  at  sea  in  The  Tempest,  written 
about  1611. 

George  Sandys.  The  first  ambitious  effort  in  poetical 
composition  and  scholarly  attainment  in  America  must  be 
accredited  to  George  Sandys  (1577-1644),  who,  in  the  face 
of  almost  insuperable  obstacles  in  the  newly  settled  con 
tinent,  made  a  rimed  translation  of  fifteen  books  of  Ovid's 
Metamorphoses,  and  published  it  in  London  in  1626.  It  is 
a  noteworthy  fact  that  this  translation  was  made  in  the 
heroic  couplet,  the  vehicle  afterward  widely  used  by  Dryden, 
Pope,  and  their  followers,  in  the  translations  and  satirical 
poems  of  the  classical  age  in  English  literature.  Both 
Dryden  and  Pope  read  Sandys'  translation  and  commented 
favorably  upon  the  American  colonist's  work.  Professor 
Moses  Coit  Tyler  in  his  History  of  American  Literature, 
Colonial  Period  (1607-1765),  speaks  of  Sandys'  translation 
as  "the  first  monument  of  English  poetry,  of  classical 
scholarship,  and  of  deliberate  literary  art  reared  on  these 
shores." 

"Epitaph  on  Nathaniel  Bacon."  The  single  noteworthy 
original  poem  that  has  come  down  .to  us  from  the  Southern 
Colonies  is  the  "Epitaph  on  Nathaniel  Bacon,"  composed 
by  some  unknown  person.  This  dirge  was  discovered  in  the 
Burwell  Papers,  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  distinguished 
Virginia  family  who  secured  the  papers  and  first  gave  them 
to  the  public.  The  manuscripts  dealing  with  the  so-called 
Bacon's  Rebellion  (1676)  were  revealed  about  a  century  after 

1 


The  Colonial  Period  9 

the  stirring  events  which  they  chronicle.  The  "Epitaph"  is 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Bacon's  body  servant.  This 
might  well  have  been  true,  for  in  those  days  many  white 
persons  of  excellent  education  were  indentured  to  service  to 
the  richer  colonists.  Professor  Tyler  speaks  enthusiastically 
of  this  noble  dirge,  saying  that  it  has  stateliness,  energy, 
and  a  mournful  eloquence,  reminding  one  of  the  commemo 
rative  verse  of  Ben  Jonson.1 

Southern  chroniclers.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  colonial 
period  several  worthy  chroniclers  arose  in  the  Southern 
Colonies,  notably  Robert  Beverly,  author  of  The  History 
and  Present  State  of  Virginia  (1705) ;  William  Stith,  president 
of  William  and  Mary  College,  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  and 
author  of  the  History  of  the  First  Discovery  and  Settlement 
of  Virginia  (1747);  and  Colonel  William  Byrd  (1674-1744), 
a  highly  cultured  and  wealthy  Virginia  planter,  author  of 
the  History  of  the  Dividing  Line  Run  in  1728. 

William  Byrd.  "Colonel"  William  Byrd2  (1674-1744) 
deserves  special  attention  as  an  example  of  the  Cavalier 
type  in  the  Southern  Colonies,  for  he  is  thoroughly  typical 
of  the  high-class  Virginia  gentleman  of  colonial  times. 
He  was  well  educated  both  by  travel  and  study,  and  he 
collected  around  him  all  the  evidences  of  comfort  and  cul 
ture  that  wealth  and  social  standing  could  at  that  time 
attract  to  American  shores.  His  library  was  perhaps  the 
largest  in  America  during  colonial  times.  The  extensive 
correspondence  and  methodical  journals  of  Byrd,  though 
not  published  in  his  own  day,  give  evidence  of  the  influence 
of  the  select  literature  with  which  his  wide  reading  made 
him  familiar.  Like  his  Cavalier  ancestors,  Byrd  cultivated 
literature  as  an  elegant  pastime  rather  than  for  the  fame 

i  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  History  of  American  Literature,  Colonial  Period 
(1607-1765),  page  18.  The  "Epitaph"  has  been  frequently  reprinted  in 
collections  of  American  verse. 

2His  father,  William  Byrd,  Senior,  was  a  real  colonel  in  the  early  militia, 
and  the  second  William  Byrd  has  always  been  called  Colonel  Byrd,  by 
courtesy  it  is  supposed. 


IO 


History  of  American  Literature 


which  publication  would  have  brought  him.     His  literary 
remains  lay  in  manuscript  until  1841,  and  it  was  not  until 


WESTOVER,  THE   HOME   OF   WILLIAM    BYRD 

the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  that  his  productions 
were  given  to  the  public  in  carefully  edited  form.  Since 
his  work  was  first  published,  William  Byrd's  reputation  as 
an  entertaining  writer  and  an  excellent  prose  stylist  has 
grown  to  such  proportions  that  he  is  now  placed  in  the  first 
rank  of  colonial  prose  writers.  The  We  stover  MSS,  or  The 
History  of  the  Dividing  Line  Run  in  1728,  is  a  record  of  his 
experiences  with  a  surveying  party  as  a  member  of  the 
commission  appointed  to  settle  the  disputed  boundary  line 
between  North  Carolina  and  Virginia.  Naturally  Byrd  was 
more  or  less  a  partisan  for  Virginia,  and  his  descriptions  of 
the  dismal  North  Carolina  swamps  and  especially  his  witty 
and  satiric  portraits  of  the  uncultured  North  Carolinians  still 
provoke  lively  mirth  in  all  readers  who  dip  into  his  narrative. 
The  book  is  full  of  vivid  descriptions  of  the  strange  plant 


The  Colonial  Period  n 

and  animal  life  and  natural  phenomena  of  the  new  country, 
and  many  amusing  incidents  are  interspersed  to  relieve  the 
tedium  of  the  narrative  of  the  progress  of  the  surveying 
party.  The  following  bear  story  will  illustrate  Byrd's  style. 

One  of  the  Young  Fellows  we  had  sent  to  bring  up  the  tired  Horses 
entertained  us  in  the  Evening  with  a  remarkable  adventure  he  had 
met  with  that  day.  He  had  straggled,  it  seems,  from  his  Company  in 
a  mist,  and  made  a  cub  of  a  year  old  betake  itself  to  a  Tree.  While 
he  was  new-priming  his  piece,  with  intent  to  fetch  it  down,  the  Old 
Gentlewoman  appeared,  and  perceiving  her  Heir  apparent  in  Distress, 
advanc'd  open-mouth'd  to  his  relief.  The  man  was  so  intent  upon  his 
Game,  that  she  had  approacht  very  near  him  before  he  perceived  her. 
But  finding  his  Danger,  he  faced  about  upon  the  Enemy,  which  immedi 
ately  rear'd  upon  her  posteriors,  &  put  herself  in  Battle  Array.  The 
Man,  admiring  at  the  Bear's  assurance,  endeavour'd  to  fire  upon  Her, 
but  by  the  Dampness  of  the  Priming,  his  Gun  did  not  go  off.  He 
cockt  it  a  second  time,  and  had  the  same  misfortune.  After  missing 
Fire  twice,  he  had  the  folly  to  punch  the  Beast  with  the  muzzle  of  his 
Piece;  but  mother  Bruin,  being  upon  her  Guard,  seized  the  Weapon 
with  her  Paws,  and  by  main  strength  wrenched  it  out  of  the  Fellow's 
Hands.  The  Man  being  thus  fairly  disarm'd,  thought  himself  no 
longer  a  Match  for  the  Enemy,  and  therefore  retreated  as  fast  as  his 
Legs  could  carry  him.  The  brute  naturally  grew  bolder  upon  the 
flight  of  her  Adversary,  and  pursued  him  with  all  her  heavy  speed. 
For  some  time  it  was  doubtful  whether  fear  made  one  run  faster,  or 
Fury  the  other.  But  after  an  even  course  of  about  50  yards  the  Man 
had  the  Mishap  to  Stumble  over  a  Stump,  and  fell  down  his  full  Length. 
He  now  wou'd  have  sold  his  Life  a  Penny-worth;  but  the  Bear,  appre 
hending  there  might  be  some  Trick  in  the  Fall,  instantly  halted,  and 
lookt  with  much  attention  on  her  Prostrate  Foe.  In  the  mean  while, 
the  Man  had  with  great  presence  of  Mind  resolved  to  make  the  Bear 
believe  he  was  dead,  by  lying  Breathless  on  the  Ground,  in  Hopes  that 
the  Beast  would  be  too  generous  to  kill  him  over  again.  To  carry  on 
the  Farce  he  acted  the  Corpse  for  some  time  without  dareing  to  raise 
his  head,  to  see  how  near  the  Monster  was  to  him.  But  in  about  two 
Minutes  to  his  unspeakable  Comfort,  he  was  rais'd  from  the  Dead  by 
the  Barking  of  a  Dog,  belonging  to  one  of  his  companions,  who  came 
Seasonably  to  his  Rescue,  and  drove  the  Bear  from  pursuing  the  Man 
to  take  care  of  her  Cub,  which  she  fear'd  might  now  fall  into  a  second 
Distress. 


12  History  of  American  Literature 

LITERATURE  IN  THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES 
Character  of  the  Puritans.  Both  the  Plymouth  (1620) 
and  the  Massachusetts  Bay  (1630)  Colonies  were  settled  by 
the  Puritans,  those  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  being  called  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers.  The  Puritans  were  so  called  because  they 
demanded  a  purer  form  of  religion  than  was  afforded  by  the 
established  church  of  England.  They  insisted  that  the 
will  of  God,  as  revealed  through  the  Scriptures  and  the 
consciences  of  men,  should  be  the  supreme  authority  in 
all  religious  matters.  Hence  they  were  opposed  to  all 
prescribed  church  forms  and  religious  ceremonies.  They 
held  to  the  Calvinistic  system  of  theology,  proclaiming  that 
man  was  created  with  full  freedom  of  will,  and  that  after 
the  fall  of  Adam,  God  had  provided  a  means  through  the 
substitution  of  Christ,  whereby  the  chosen  ones  might  be 
saved  from  the  penalties  of  sin  and  received  up  into  heaven. 
The  whole  purpose  of  man's  life  on  earth  was,  first,  to  make 
his  salvation  sure;  and  second,  to  subdue  the  body  in  order 
to  prepare  the  soul  for  the  joys  of  heaven.  All  the  frivoli 
ties  and  pleasures  of  life  ought  to  be  suppressed,  they 
believed,  and  all  men  ought  to  engage  in  religious  activities, 
such  as  reading  the  Scriptures,  attending  divine  worship, 
and  praising  God  and  praying  continually,  and  so  strive 
in  every  way  to  bring  the  human  will  into  harmony  with 
the  will  of  God.  This  austere  and  serious  attitude  toward 
life  dominated  the  temper  of  the  early  Puritan  settlers  in 
Massachusetts,  and  in  it  we  shall  find  the  key  to  the  inter 
pretation  of  early  literature  in  the  New  England  colonies. 

Their  self-dependency.  The  Puritans  took  life  seriously. 
They  kept  fuller  and  more  trustworthy  records  of  their 
history  than  did  the  Cavaliers  in  Virginia.  Forced  out  of 
England  because  of  their  non-conformity  in  religious  matters, 
they  were  practically  cut  off  from  the  mother  country  and 
made  almost  wholly  self-dependent.  They  developed  their 
own  system  of  education,  founding  Harvard  College  as  early 


The  Colonial  Period  13 

as  1636  and  establishing  a  system  of  public  education  at  a 
similarly  early  date.  They  read  few%  English  books,  and  pres 
ently  they  were  supplying  themselves  with  their  own  news 
papers,  almanacs,  and  home-made  text-books,  such  as  the 
famous  New  England  Primer.  In  1639  the  first  printing 
press  in  this  country  was  set  up  at  Cambridge,  and  on  it  the 
Bay  Psalm  Book  was  printed  in  1640.  Their  historians  kept 
painstaking  and  extensive  records,  their  preachers  wrote 
many  long  sermons  and  theological  works,  their  leaders 
enacted  many  restrictive  personal  laws,  and  on  the  whole 
the  New  England  settlers  soon  developed  a  more  or  less 
complete  and  independent  system  of  social  and  religious  life. 
Homogeneity  of  their  literature.  Moreover,  the  Puritans 
were  more  alike  in  their  ideals  and  more  unified  and  deter 
mined  in  their  purposes  than  were  the  Southern  colonists. 
They  planned  a  sort  of  ideal  government  with  God  as  the 
invisible  ruler,  desiring  to  perfect  and  try  out  their  plan  far 
away  from  England  on  the  free  shores  of  the  wild,  new 
continent.  They  wished  to  attract  recruits  from  England, 
however,  and  so  they  were  constantly  advertising  among 
the  dissenters  in  England  the  advantages  of  their  form  of 
worship  and  their  absolute  freedom  from  English  domination 
on  the  distant  American  shores.  But  in  reality  there  was 
little  true  religious  freedom  offered,  for  the  Puritans  wanted 
everybody  in  their  colony  to  submit  to  their  religious 
ideas,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  their  severe  treatment  of  the 
Quakers,  Roger  Williams,  .and  the  Episcopalians.  The 
dominant  ideals  of  the  New  England  Colonies,  then,  were 
based  on  their  Calvinistic  theology.  Their  histories  are 
largely  the  record  of  their  religious  activities ;  the  main 
body  of  their  literature  is  made  up  of  sermons  and  theologi 
cal  works;  and  what  little  poetry  they  produced  was  also 
written  in  their  characteristic  tone  of  Calvinistic  theology, 
as  is  shown  in  "The  Day  of  Doom"  by  Michael  Wiggles- 
worth,  as  an  example  of  the  worst,  or  in  "Contemplations" 


14  History  of  American  Literature 

by  Anne  Bradstreet,  as  an  example  of  the  best  poetry  of 
this  period  in  the  New  England  Colonies. 

Quality  of  their  literature.  The  quality  of  this  kind  of 
literature  is  not  very  high  if  judged  on  purely  esthetic 
grounds.  There  is  no  real  poetry,  no  drama,  no  purely 
imaginative  literature;  and  except  for  its  historical,  theo 
logical,  and  antiquarian  interest,  and  its  revelation  of  the 
religious,  political,  and  social  life  of  our  Puritan  ancestors, 
the  literature  of  the  whole  colonial  period  presents  little 
that  need  detain  the  young  student.  Comparatively,  how 
ever,  the  works  produced  in  New  England  are  more 
important  than  those  produced  in  the  other  colonies.  For 
our  present  purposes  we  may  speak  of  the  New  England 
authors  in  three  groups,  the  chief  annalists  and  historians, 
the  most  notable  verse  makers,  and  the  great  preachers  and 
theologians. 

NEW    ENGLAND    ANNALISTS    AND    HISTORIANS 

William  Bradford.  Among  the  New  England  annalists 
the  first  name  is  that  of  Governor  William  Bradford  (1588- 
1657).  He  came  over  with  the  Plymouth  colony  in  1620, 
and  for  a  number  of  years  kept  a  careful  journal  of  the  early 
activities  of  the  settlers.  He  was  assisted  in  this  work  by 
Edward  Winslow,  another  prominent  member  of  the  colony, 
and  in  1622  there  appreared  in  London  a  part  of  their 
journal,  which  became  known  as  Mourt's  Relation,  so  called 
because  the  prefatory  note  was  signed  by  "G.  Mourt." 
Bradford's  great  work,  The  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation, 
was  begun  in  1630  and  continued  through  twenty  years. 
It  lay  in  manuscript  for  over  two  hundred  years,  during 
which  time  it  had  quite  a  romantic  series  of  travels,  landing 
finally  in  the  library  of  the  Bishop  of  London  and  remaining 
there  many  years  before  it  was  printed  in  the  Annals  of  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  manuscript  was  given  to  the 


The  Colonial  Period  15 

Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  in  1896,  and  it  is  now 
carefully  guarded  as  one  of  the  chief  historical  treasures  in 
the  possession  of  the  State  Library  at  Boston. 

John  Winthrop.  Governor  John  Winthrop  (1588-1649), 
of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony,  also  kept  a  careful 
journal,  beginning  his  record  with  the  sailing  of  his  vessel 
from  England  in  1630  and  continuing  it  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
This  journal  also  lay  in  manuscript  until  near  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  was  published  under  the 
title  of  The  Journal  of  John  Winthrop  (1790).  Early  in  the 
nineteenth  century  (1825)  it  was  republished  with  some 
additional  Winthrop  manuscripts  under  the  title  of  The 
History  of  New  England  from  1630  to  1649.  There  is  some 
excellent  prose  in  this  so-called  history,  notably  the  elaborate 
and  sound  definition  of  true  liberty;  but  the  work  as  a 
whole  is,  like  Bradford's  History  of  Plymouth  Plantation, 
far  more  interesting  as  a  source  book  of  historical  facts  than 
as  a  product  of  literary  value.  As  a  sample  of  the  exposi 
tory  prose  style  of  the  colonial  period  we  may  quote  a  para 
graph  from  what  Winthrop  called  his  "Little  Speech  on 
Liberty, "  found  in  his  Journal  for  the  year  1645. 

For  the  other  point  concerning  liberty,  I  observe  a  great  mistake 
in  the  country  about  that.  There  is  a  twofold  liberty,  natural  (I  mean 
as  our  nature  is  now  corrupt)  and  civil  or  federal.  The  first  is  common 
to  man  with  beasts  and  other  creatures.  By  this,  man  as  he  stands  in 
relation  to  man  simply,  hath  liberty  to  do  what  he  lists:  it  is  a  liberty 
to  evil  as  well  as  to  good.  This  liberty  is  incompatible  and  inconsistent 
with  authority,  and  cannot  endure  the  least  restraint  of  the  most  just 
authority.  The  exercise  and  maintaining  of  this  liberty  makes  men 
grow  more  evil,  and  in  time  to  be  worse  than  brute  beasts:  omnes 
sumus  licentia  deteriores.  This  is  that  great  enemy  of  truth  and  peace, 
that  wild  beast,  which  all  the  ordinances  of  God  are  bent  against,  to 
restrain  and  subdue  it.  The  other  kind  of  liberty  I  call  civil  or  federal : 
it  may  also  be  termed  moral,  in  reference  to  the  covenant  between 
God  and  man,  in  the  moral  law,  and  the  politic  covenants  and  con 
stitutions,  amongst  men  themselves.  This  liberty  is  the  proper  end 
and  object  of  authority,  and  cannot  subsist  without  it;  and  it  is  a  liberty 


1 6  History  oj  American  Literature 

to  that  only  which  is  good,  just,  and  honest.  This  liberty  you  are  to 
stand  for  with  the  hazard  (not  only  of  your  goods,  but)  of  your  lives, 
if  need  be.  Whatsoever  crosseth  this  is  not  authority,  but  a  distemper 
thereof.  This  liberty  is  maintained  and  exercised  in  a  way  of  subjec 
tion  to  authority;  it  is  of  the  same  kind  of  liberty  wherewith  Christ 
hath  made  us  free.  ...  If  you  stand  for  your  natural  corrupt  liberties, 
and  will  do  what  is  good  in  your  own  eyes,  you  will  not  endure  the 
least  weight  of  authority,  but  will  murmur,  and  oppose,  and  be  always 
striving  to  shake  off  that  yoke ;  but  if  you  will  be  satisfied  to  enjoy  such 
civil  and  lawful  liberties,  such  as  Christ  allows  you,  then  will  you 
quietly  and  cheerfully  submit  unto  that  authority  which  is  set  over 
you,  in  all  the  administrations  of  it,  for  your  good.'  Wherein,  if  we 
fail  at  any  time,  we  hope  we  shall  be  willing  (by  God's  assistance) 
to  hearken  to  good  advice  from  any  of  you,  or  in  any  other  way  of  God; 
so  shall  your  liberties  be  preserved,  in  upholding  the  honor  and  power  of 
authority  amongst  you.1 

Thomas  Morton.  In  contrast  to  the  uniform  seriousness 
of  these  Puritan  annalists,  the  work  of  the  sportive,  romantic, 
and  somewhat  whimsical  Cavalier  and  Episcopalian,  Thomas 
Morton  (?-i646),  should  be  briefly  treated.  He  was  the 
leading  spirit  in  a  small  group  of  traders  who  attempted  to 
found  a  colony  of  adherents  to  the  Church  of  England  at 
Mount  Wollaston  (now  Quincy,  just  south  of  Boston), 
better  known  in  history  and  literature  as  Merry  Mount. 
These  Cavaliers  retained  their  English  customs,  among 
others  the  Mayday  celebration  in  which  they  set  up  a 
Maypole  and  engaged  in  the  joyous  amatory  pranks  char 
acteristic  of  this  English  festival.  The  Puritans  would  not 
tolerate  this  band  of  light-hearted  merrymakers,  and  Gov 
ernor  Bradford  sent  Captain  Miles  Standish  to  disperse 
them.  Hawthorne  has  based  one  of  his  stories,  "The 
Maypole  of  Merry  Mount,"  on  this  incident.  Morton  was 
forcibly  transported  to  England  by  the  Puritans.  He 
responded  to  this  treatment  by  stirring  up  in  England 
considerable  opposition  to  the  Massachusetts  colony.  He 
published  a  book  called  The  New  English  Canaan  (1637), 

iReproduced  from  Old  South  Leaflets,  No.  66. 


The  Colonial  Period  17 

in  which  he  praises  in  extravagant  terms  the  advantages  of 
New  England,  urges  members  of  the  English  Church  to 
become  settlers,  and  attacks  with  humorous  satire  the 
religious  and  social  customs  of  the  Puritans.  For  example, 
he  speaks  of  the  Puritans  as  ' 'winking,"  that  is  closing 
their  eyes,  when  they  pray,  "because  they  think  themselves 
so  perfect  in  the  highe  way  to  heaven,  that  they  can  find  it 
blindfold." 

Judge  Sewall's  diary.  Among  the  later  colonial  annalists, 
Judge  Samuel  Sewall  (1652-1730)  should  receive  special 
mention.  He  was  brought  to  America  when  he  was  about 
nine  years  old,  and  hence  he  may  be  said  to  have  been 
reared  and  educated  in  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony. 
He  was  a  man  of  exemplary  character,  being  esteemed  as  a 
typical  Puritan  gentleman  of  his  time.  He  accumulated 
considerable  wealth,  became  first  a  minister  and  then  a 
judge,  and  finally  rose  to  be  the  chief  justice  of  the  colony. 
He  took  part  as  one  of  the  seven  judges  in  the  arraignment 
and  condemnation  of  the  Salem  witches,  but  he  afterward 
publicly  acknowledged  his  error  in  so  doing  and  prayed  God 
to  forgive  him  for  this  grievous  sin.  He  kept  a  fairly  com 
plete  diary  from  1673  to  1729,  and  it  is  upon  this  that  his 
fame  chiefly  rests.  His  minute  records  of  the  political, 
religious,  and  social  life  of  his  times  make  a  veritable  mine 
for  the  students  of  the  history  of  this  period.  The  quaint 
reference  to  the  punishment  of  his  children  for  playing  at 
prayer  time  and  eating  during  the  "Return  Thanks,"  and 
especially  his  naive  account  of  his  courtship  of  several 
estimable  ladies,  make  entertaining  reading  even  in  the 
present  day.  The  value  of  a  personal  diary  must  be  esti 
mated  on  the  frankness  and  fullness  of  the  picture  of  life 
presented  rather  than  upon  formal  literary  excellences;  as  a 
diary  Judge  Sewall's  account  ranks  among  the  best  of  its 
kind.  Another  work  written  and  printed  by  Judge  Sewall 
in  Boston,  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Selling  of  Joseph,  a 


1 8  History  of  American  Literature 

Memorial  (1700),  attacks  the  custom  of  buying  and  selling 
slaves  in  the  Massachusetts  colony.  This  tract  is  now 
remembered  as  the  first  anti-slavery  document  produced 
in  America. 

THE    NEW    ENGLAND    POETS 

The  "Bay  Psalm  Book."     There  was  little  or  no  poetry 
worthy  of  the  name  in  the  New  England  colonies.     The 


From  the  painting  by  G.  H.  Boughton 
PURITANS   GOING  TO   CHURCH 

Puritan  mind  was  averse  to  works  of  pure  imagination  in 
any  form,  and  verse  was  only  tolerated  as  a  handmaiden  of 
religious  instruction  and  admonition.  A  few  stiff  eulogies 
in  the  form  of  memorial  verses  have  survived  in  New  Eng 
land,  but  they  are  hardly  worth  reading.  The  Bay  Psalm 
Book  is  a  typical  example  of  the  crude  and  almost  barbarous 
literary  taste  of  the  early  divines.  A  number  of  the  leading 
ministers,  among  them  Richard  Mather,  Thomas  Welde, 
and  John  Eliot,  were  appointed  to  translate  the  Psalms  for 
use  in  the  song  service  of  the  churches.  The  volume  was 
issued  from  the  Cambridge  printing  press  in  1640,  and  thus 
has  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  important  book  pub 
lished  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States.  The 
following  selection  from  the  awkward  and  ineuphonious 


The  Colonial  Period  19 

translation  will  suffice  to  illustrate  what  the  New  England 
settlers  accepted  as  poetry: 

23   A   PSALME   OF   DAVID 

The  Lord  to  mee  a  shepheard  is, 
want  therefore  shall  not  I. 

2  Hee  in  the  folds  of  tender-grasse, 

doth  cause  mee  downe  to  lie: 
To  waters  calme  me  gently  leads 

3  Restore  my  soule  doth  hee: 
he  doth  in  paths  of  righteousnes : 

for  his  names  sake  leade  mee. 

4  Yea  though  in  valley  of  deaths  shade 

I  walk,  none  ill  Tie  feare: 

%  because  thou  art  with  mee,  thy  rod, 

and  staffe  my  comfort  are. 

5  For  mee  a  table  thou  hast  spread, 

in  presence  of  my  foes: 
thou  dost  annoynt  my  head  with  oyle, 
my  cup  it  over-flowes. 

6  Goodnes  &  mercy  surely  shall 

all  my  dayes  follow  mee: 
and  in  the  Lords  house  I  shall  dwell 
so  long  as  dayes  shall  bee. 

Let  it  be  remembered,  however,  that  this  sing-song  verse 
rendering  of  the  finely  modulated  prose  of  the  Bible  was 
written  to  be  sung  rather  than  read. 

Anne  Bradstreet.  But  there  is  one  New  England  writer 
who  possessed  a  genuine  poetical  talent,  a  woman,  Anne 
Bradstreet  (1612-1672),  known  as  the  "tenth  Muse." 
She  was  born  in  England,  but  came  to  America  with  her 
father,  Thomas  Dudley,  who  afterwards  became  Governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  her  husband,  Simon  Bradstreet,  who  also 
became  governor  of  the  colony.  She  was  a  woman  of  fine 
qualities,  making  her  personality  felt  in  the  life  of  the  colony 
as  well  as  in  her  own  household  of  eight  children.  With 
all  of  her  other  duties,  and  in  spite  of  ill  health  brought  on 
because  of  the  exposure  and  hardships  incident  to  colonial 


20  History  of  American  Literature 

life,  she  found  time  to  compose  a  considerable  volume  of 
poems.  Her  manuscripts  were  carried  to  England,  and  in 
1650  they  were  published  under  the  title,  The  Tenth  Muse 
Lately  Sprung  up  in  America:  Or  Several  Poems,  Compiled 
with  Great  Variety  of  Wit  and  Learning.  We  are  pleased 
to  know  that  the  lady  is  not  herself  responsible  for  this 
aspiring  and  self-laudatory  title,  but  that  her  London  pub 
lisher  thus  elaborated  it  to  meet  the  demands  of  his  trade. 
There  are  included  in  this  volume  five  long  poems  in  heroic 
couplets  on  the  four  elements,  the  four  humors  in  man,  the 
four  ages  of  man,  the  four  seasons,  the  four  monarchies;1 
and  several  shorter  poems,  among  them  "Contemplations," 
which  is  considered  her  best  production.  The  eighth 
and  ninth  stanzas  from  this  last-named  poem  will  show, 
in  spite  of  certain  strained  conceits,  that  Anne  Bradstreet 
took  real  delight  in  nature,  that  she  was  genuinely  sincere 
in  her  moral  sentiments,  and  that  she  had  a  fairly  .good 
ear  for  rhythm. 

Silent  alone,  where  none  or  saw,  or  heard, 

In  pathless  paths  I  lead  my  wandring  feet; 

My  humble  Eyes  to  lofty'Skyes  I  rear'd 

To  sing  some  Song,  my  mased  Muse  thought  meet. 

My  great  Creator  I  would  magnifi'e, 

That  nature  had,  thus  decked  liberally 

But  Ah,  and  Ah,  again,  my  imbecility! 

I  heard  the  merry  grasshopper  then  sing, 

The  black  clad  Cricket  bear  a  second  part, 

They  kept  one  tune,  and  plaid  on  the  same  string, 

Seeming  to  glory  in  their  little  Art. 

Shall  Creatures  abject,  thus  their  voices  raise? 

And  in  their  kind  resound  their  makers  praise: 

Whilst  I  as  mute,  can  warble  forth  no  higher  layes. 

Wigglesworth's  "Day  of  Doom."     The  most  character 
istic  Puritan  poem,  and  the  most  popular  one  of  its  time  if 

iSome  one  has  called  these  .five  poems  "The  Quintet  of  Quarternions." 


The  Colonial  Period  21 

we  may  judge  from  its  numerous  editions,  was  "The  Day 
of  Doom,  or  a  Poetical  Description  of  the  Great  and  Last 
Judgment"  by  Michael  Wigglesworth  (1631-1705).  Judged 
by  the  standards  of  his  own  times,  Wigglesworth  was  a  great 
poet,  but  the  modern  world  has  practically  reversed  this 
decision.  In  colonial  homes  "The  Day  of  Doom"  was 
circulated  perhaps  more  widely  than  any  other  poetical 
composition.  Children  were  required  to  memorize  long 
passages  from  it  in  order  to  ground  themselves  in  the  Cal- 
vinistic  doctrines  elaborately  rimed  into  the  two  hundred 
and  twenty-four  stanzas  of  this  so-called  poem.  To  the 
modern  mind  theological  doctrines  are  not,  in  the  first  place, 
suitable  material  to  be  put  into  a  poem;  and  in  the  second 
place,  a  double  ballad  stanza  with  jingling  internal  rime  is 
not  a  fit  vehicle  in  which  to  express  dignified  thought  or 
religious  emotion.  A  brief  sample  of  this  sort  of  theological 
argument  in  ballad  meter  will  probably  satisfy  most  modern 
readers.1  The  "Plea  of  the  Infants"  is  the  title  of  the 
section  which  deals  with  the  problem  of  the  damnation  of 
those  who  die  in  the  innocence  of  infancy.  The  children 
make  a  plea  to  the  Lord  for  mercy,  arguing  that  since  they 
were  immediately  carried  "from  the  womb  unto  the  tomb" 
they  had  no  chance  either  to  sin  or  repent;  they  urge  that 
Adam's  sin  should  not  be  visited  on  them,  since  they  had 
neither  the  power  nor  the  opportunity  to  resist  or  prevent 
his  action.  God  replies  in  a  long  argument  and  concludes 
his  answer  to  the  children's  plea  as  follows: 

"You  sinners  are,  and  such  a  share 

as  sinners,  may  expect; 
Such  you  shall  have,  for  I  do  save 

none  but  mine  own  Elect. 


i  Professor  Percy  H.  Boynton  thinks  that  Wigglesworth  consciously 
wrote  his  poem  in. this  jingling  measure  to  attract  popular  attention,  and 
argues  that  this  poet  was  capable  of  a  higher  strain,  as  is  proved  by  certain 
lines  written  in  heroic  couplets  and  printed  at  the  end  of  "The  Day  of 
Doom."  See  American  Poetry,  p.  600. 


22  History  of  American  Literature 

Yet  to  compare  your  sin  with  their 

who  liv'd  a  longer  time, 
I  do  confess  yours  is  much  less, 

though  every  sin's  a  crime. 
"A  crime  it  is,  therefore  in  bliss 

you  may  not  hope  to  dwell; 
But  unto  you  I  shall  allow 

the  easiest  room  in  Hell." 
The  glorious  King  thus  answering, 

they  cease,  and  plead  no  longer; 
Their  Consciences  must  needs  confess 

his  Reasons  are  the  stronger. 

THE    NEW   ENGLAND   THEOLOGIANS 

Theological  writings.  While  the  historical  records  and  the 
poetical  productions  may  be  more  frequently  consulted  by 
modern  readers,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  is  the  theological 
literature — the  sermons,  philosophical  and  religious  tracts, 
and  ecclesiastical  histories — that  most  characteristically 
represents  our  Puritan  forefathers.  As  literature,  most 
of  these  productions  are  now  worthless ;  but  as  representative 
products  of  the  Puritan  mind  and  temper,  they  are  invalu 
able.  A  long  list  of  influential  divines  with  their  extensive 
religious  publications  might  be  compiled,  but  we  can  get  a 
fairly  adequate  conception  of  the  theological  writing  of  the 
time  by  considering  the  work  of  the  most  prominent  of  them. 

Nathaniel  Ward's  "The  Simple  Cobler  of  Aggawamm." 
Before  taking  up  the  theological  works  proper,  however, 
we  may  consider  briefly  one  peculiar  prose  composition  called 
The  Simple  Cobler  of  Aggawamm  (1647).  Nathaniel  Ward, 
the  author  of  this  curious  book,  was  an  Englishman  who 
came  to  America  under  the  persecutions  of  Laud  and  became 
a  Puritan  minister  at  Agawam  (later  called  Ipswich)  in 
what  is  now  Essex  County,  Massachusetts.  The  Simple 
Cobler  was  published  in  London  after  Ward's  return  to 
England  and  was  really  addressed  to  English  rather  than 
American  readers.  It  is  a  prose  satire,  sprinkled  here  and 


The  Colonial  Period  23 

there  with  heroic  couplets,  attacking  religious  toleration, 
fashions  in  dress,  and  the  general  political  conditions  of 
the  times.  There  is  no  great  literary  merit  in  the  work, 
but  it  struck  an  original  note  and  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  its  day,  passing  through  four  editions  within 
the  first  year  of  its  publication.  Because  of  his  satiric  vein, 
his  peculiar  verbal  coinages,  and  his  original  phraseology, 
Ward  has  been  called  an  early  American  Carlyle,  but  he  is 
perhaps  quite  as  much  an  early  English  Carlyle,  although  he 
hardly  deserves  to  be  mentioned  in  the  same  breath  with  the 
great  nineteenth-century  English  writer. 

The  Mather  family :  Richard  Mather.  The  Mather  family 
furnished  by  far  the  most  distinguished  and  influential  group 
of  ministers  in  New  England.  A  famous  old  epitaph  written 
for  the  tomb  of  the  first  representative  of  the  family  who 
came  to  America,  reads: 

Under  this  stone  lies  Richard  Mather 
Who  had  a  son  greater  than  his  father, 
And  eke  a  grandson  greater  than  either. 

This  Richard  Mather,  a  non-Conformist  minister  in  England, 
was  forbidden  to  preach  and  practically  forced  to  emigrate 
to  America.  He  settled  at  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  in 
1635,  and  at  once  took  rank  with  the  influential  ministers 
of  the  colony.  It  is  said  that  out  of  his  loins  sprang  more 
than  fourscore  preachers. 

Increase  Mather.  All  four  of  Richard  Mather's  sons  be 
came  ministers,  and  of  these,  the  youngest,  Increase  Mather 
(1639-1723),  became  the  most  prominent  man  of  his  time. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  and  became  a 
preacher  at  once,  but  decided  to  go  abroad  for  further  study 
at  Dublin  before  beginning  his  active  ministry.  Upon  his 
return  he  married  the  daughter  of  John  Cotton,  another 
famous  Puritan  divine,  and  thus  united  in  his  distinguished 
offspring,  Cotton  Mather,  two  famous  New  England  families 


24  History  of  American  Literature 

of  preachers.  He  became  minister  of  the  old  North  Church  in 
Boston,  and  in  addition  to  his  ministerial  duties,  which  were 
later  shared  by  his  son  Cotton,  he  was  called  to  the  presidency 
of  Harvard  College.  In  this  double  position  of  preacher 
and  college  president,  he  exerted  an  enormous  influence. 
He  was  not  only  the  most  distinguished  minister  and  edu 
cator  of  his  time,  but  the  most  powerful  force  in  the  political 
li'fe  of  the  colony.  He  was  sent  to  England  to  renew  the 
provisions  of  the  royal  charter  under  King  William  III,  and 
his  success  in  obtaining  favorable  modifications  in  the 
interest  of  the  colony  is  said  to  mark  him  as  a  skilful  states 
man.  The  only  work  of  his  that  is  now  usually  referred  to 
by  literary  historians  is  his  Essay  for  Recording  of  Illus 
trious  Providences  (1684),  a  work  eminently  characteristic  of 
our  Puritan  ancestors  in  their  credulity  respecting  super 
natural  occurrences. 

Cotton  Mather.  If  Increase  Mather  is  reckoned  as  a 
voluminous  writer  with  his  hundred  and  fifty  publications, 
what  shall  we  say  of  Cotton  Mather  (1663-1728)  with  his 
nearly  four  hundred  books,  tracts,  and  sermons?  The 
younger  Mather  was  exceedingly  precocious  in  his  religious 
and  literary  development.  He  confesses  that  he  began  to 
engage  in  prayer  from  the  time  that  he  learned  to  speak,  and 
he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  poring  over  his  books  and 
his  own  compositions — most  of  which  were  of  a  religious 
character.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  when 
he  was  seventeen,  and  even  then  was  looked  upon  as  a  mas 
ter  in  the  whole  realm  of  knowledge.  He  had  an  enormous 
capacity  for  languages,  being  able  to  put  his  compositions 
into  five  or  six  different  foreign  tongues.  His  literary  output 
seems  almost  superhuman.  On  an  average,  he  put  forth 
something  like  a  dozen  publications  a  year,  besides  keeping 
innumerable  fasts,  spending  many  hours  in  private  prayer, 
attending  public  services  of  all  kinds,  preaching  hundreds  of 
sermons,  and  faithfully  attending  to  the  numerous  other 


The  Colonial  Period  25 

pastoral  duties  of  his  charge.  One  of  his  books,  Memorable 
Providences  Relating  to  Witchcraft,  was  unfortunately  quoted 
as  an  authority  during  the  later  cruel  persecutions  at 
Salem.  He  is  not  to  be  so  greatly  blamed  for  his  connection 
with  witchcraft,  however,  as  his  detractors  have  maintained, 
for  he  was  but  inquiring  in  a  painstaking  manner  into  a 
commonly  accepted  mystery  of  his  time,  and  his  personal 
attitude  toward  the  unfortunate  persons  who  were  thought 
to  be  "possessed"  was  eminently  kind  and  humane. 

"Magnolia  Christi  Americana/'  The  work  upon  which 
Cotton  Mather  expended  his  best  talents,  the  magnum  opus 
of  Puritanism  in  America  in  fact,  was  his  Magnolia  Christi 
Americana,  or  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  New  England 
(1702).  It  was  composed  in  seven  books  containing  (i) 
the  antiquities  or  the  founding  of  the  colonies;  (2)  the  lives 
of  the  governors-;  (3) -the  lives  of  sixty  famous  divines;  (4)  an 
account  of  Harvard  College  and  the  lives  of  its  eminent 
graduates;  (5)  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  churches  of 
New  England;  (6)  a  record  of  many  illustrious  providences; 
and  (7)  the  various  wars  of  the  Lord,  or  the  conflicts  of  the 
church  against  spiritual  adversaries,  Indians,  and  the  like. 
This  big  book  has  become  a  veritable  storehouse  of  informa 
tion  and  suggestion  for  later  annalists,  historians,  and 
students  of  colonial  times.  Though  altogether  untrust 
worthy  unless  supported  by  some  other  authority,  it  is 
indispensable  for  an  understanding  of  the  Puritan  temper  and 
mind.  Professor  Barrett  Wendell,  the  author  of  the  stand 
ard  life  of  Cotton  Mather,  says  of  the  Magnolia:  "The  prose 
epic  of  New  England  Puritanism  it  has  been  called,  setting 
forth  in  heroic  mood  the  principles,  the  history,  and  the 
personal  character  of  the  fathers.  The  principles,  theo 
logical  and  disciplinary  alike,  are  stated  with  clearness, 
dignity,  and  fervor.  The  history,  though  its  less  welcome 
phases  are  often  highly  emphasized  and  its  details  are 
hampered  by  no  deep  regard  for  minor  accuracy,  is  set  forth 


26  History  of  American  Literature 

with  sincere  ardor  which  makes  its  temper  more  instructive 
than  that  of  many  more  trustworthy  records.  And  the  life 
like  portraits  of  the  Lord's  chosen,  though  full  of  quaintly 
fantastic  phrases  and  artless  pedantries,  are  often  drawn 
with  touches  of  enthusiastic  beauty."1 

Jonathan  Edwards.  The  greatest  single  figure  produced 
by  Puritanism  and  the  Calvinistic  theology  was  Jonathan 
Edwards  (1703-1758).  His  intellect  is  recognized  as  the  pro- 
foundest  of  the  colonial  period,  and  he  is  still  ranked  as  a 
prominent  philosophical  thinker  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  comparison  with  the  Mathers  and  other  noted  New  Eng 
land  divines,  he  lived  a  quiet  and  uneventful  life,  entering 
but  slightly  into  the  social  and  political  conflicts  of  his  times. 
Born  in  Connecticut  in  1703  and  descended  from  a  family 
of  distinguished  preachers,  it  was  but  natural  that  he  should 
be  educated  for  the  ministry  at  Yale  College  in  New  Haven. 
He  was  extremely  precocious,  especially  in  his  early  interest 
in  philosophical  treatises,  such  as  John  Locke's  "Essay 
Concerning  Human  Understanding,"  which  he  read  with 
delight  at  fourteen.  Before  he  was  twelve,  he  had  himself 
written  a  controversial  letter  on  the  nature  of  spiritual  as 
opposed  to  materialistic  opinions  and  a  rather  pretentious 
scientific  paper  on  the  habits  of  spiders.  He  entered  college 
at  thirteen  and  was  graduated  with  first  honors  at  seventeen. 
For  a  time  he  continued  his  studies  along  with  his  duties 
as  a  tutor  at  Yale,  and  shortly  afterward  he  was  ordained 
as  a  minister.  He  accepted  the  pastorate  of  the  North 
ampton  church,  and  his  preaching  here  is  said  to  have 
prepared  the  way  for  two  notable  revivals,  the  second  one, 
in  connection  with  Whitefield's  visit  to  New  England  in 
1740,  being  known  as  the  "Great  Awakening."  He  finally 
became  so  severe  in  his  ideas  of  church  discipline  that  a 
division  arose  in  his  congregation,  and  after  almost  a  quarter 
of  a  century  of  service  he  was  forced  to  withdraw  from  the 

A  Literary  History  of  America,  p.  5°- 


JONATHAN   EDWARDS 


The  Colonial  Period  27 

Northampton  church.  He  took  up  mission  work  among 
the  Indians  in  the  frontier  town  of  Stockbridge  and  con 
tinued  to  preach  and  write.  Here  he  composed  his  great 
work  on  the  Freedom  of  the  Will.  It  was  published  in  1754, 
and  so  profound  was  its  effect  at  home  and  abroad,  especially 
in  Scotland,  where  philosophic  writing  and  Calvinistic 
theology  were  highly  esteemed,  that  Edwards  was  at  once 
recognized  as  one  of  the  great  thinkers  of  his  day.  After 
about  seven  years  of  seclusion  at  Stockbridge,  he  was  called 
to  be  President  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  now  Princeton 
University.  But  his  election  to  the  position  was  but  a 
prelude  to  his  death ;  for  an  epidemic  of  smallpox  broke  out 
shortly  afterward  among  the  students,  and  he  felt  it  to.  be 
his  duty  to  set  them  an  example  by  submitting  to  the 
then  little  understood  method  of  treatment  by  inoculation. 
Though  every  known  precaution  was  taken  to  prevent  fatal 
results,  the  distinguished  patient  died  from  the  effects  of 
the  inoculation. 

His  marriage.  One  of  the  most  pleasing  chapters  of 
Edwards's  life  is  that  pertaining  to  his  courtship  and  mar 
riage.  His  own  description  (written  when  he  was  twenty) 
of  the  beautiful  girl  of  thirteen,  Sarah  Pierpont,  of  New 
Haven,  who  was  soon  to  become  his  bride,  is  illustrative  of 
the  best  prose  of  the  colonial  period.  It  admirably  shows 
Edwards's  tendency  toward  mysticism  and  idealism,  and 
it  is  clearly  suggestive  of  the  highly  spiritualized  sentiment 
which  we  find  so  prominent  in  the  later  New  England  school 
of  writers  known  as  trarscendentalists. 

They  say  there  is  a  young  lady  in  iN"ew  Haven  who  is  beloved  of  the 
Great  Being  who  made  and  rules  the  world,  and  that  there  are  certain 
seasons  in  which  this  Gpeat  Being,  in  some  way  or  other  invisible,  comes 
to  her  and  fills  her  mind  with  exceeding  sweet  delight,  and  that  she  hardly 
cares  for  anything  except  to  meditate  on  him — that  she  expects  after  a 
while  to  be  received  up  where  he  is,  to  be  raised  up  out  of  the  world  and 
caught  up  into  heaven;  being  assured  that  he  loves  her  too  well  to  let 
her  remain  at  a  distance  from  him  always.  There  she  is  to  dwell  with 


28  History  of  American  Literature 

him,  and  to  be  ravished  with  his  love  and  delight  forever.  Therefore, 
if  you  present  all  the  world  before  her,  with  the  richest  of  its  treasures, 
she  disregards  it,  and  cares  not  for  it,  and  is  unmindful  of  any  pain  or 
affliction.  She  has  a  strange  sweetness  in  her  mind,  and  singular 
purity  in  her  affections;  is  most  just  and  conscientious  in  all  her  conduct; 
and  you  could  not  persuade  her  to  do  anything  wrong  or  sinful,  if  you 
would  give  her  all  the  world,  lest  she  should  offend  this  Great  Being. 
She  is  of  a  wonderful  sweetness,  calmness,  and  universal  benevolence 
of  mind ;  especially  after  this  great  God  has  manifested  himself  to  her 
mind.  She  will  sometimes  go  about  from  place  to  place,  singing  sweetly, 
and  seems  to  be  always  full  of  joy  and  pleasure;  and  no  one  knows  for 
what.  She  loves  to  be  alone,  walking  in  the  fields  and  groves,  and  seems 
to  have  some  one  invisible  always  conversing  with  her. 

"The  Freedom  of  the  Will.'"  The  Freedom  of  the  Will  is 
a  masterpiece  of  subtle  reasoning  and  a  recognized  classic 
in  philosophical  literature.  Though  it  is  not  so  vital  to  us, 
inasmuch  as  the  trend  of  modern  thought  seems  to  be  adverse 
to  the  discussion  of  such  unsolvable  theological  problems, 
the  apparent  contradiction  of  the  doctrine  of  the  freedom 
of  man's  will  with  the  doctrine  of  God's  preordained  plan 
and  foreknowledge  of  the  progress  of  the  universe  was  one 
of  profound  interest  to  our  Puritan  fathers.  Edwards 
assumed  the  position  of  the  subordination  of  man's  will  to 
the  play  of  circumstance,  and  argued  for  the  complete 
ascendency  of  God's  will.  Just  about  a  century  after  the 
publication  of  The  Freedom  of  the  Will,  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  as  Professor  Barrett  Wendell  has  shown,  severely 
satirized  the  whole  system  of  logic  whereby  Edwards  proved 
the  soundness  of  his  position.  In  "The  Deacon's  Master 
piece,"  Holmes  proved  that  a  chaise  built  of  equal  strength 
in  all  its  parts  would  wear  out  all  at  once.  The  absurdity 
of  the  conclusion  is  evident,  and  yet  the  logic  is  unanswerable 
if  you  admit  the  premises.  So  it  is  with  Edwards's  Calvin- 
istic  theology;  if  you  accept  his  premises,  you  will  be  forced 
to  admit  the  justness  of  his  conclusions.  Holmes  implies 
that  Edwards's  influence  lasted  just  about  a  hundred  years 


The  Colonial  Period  29 

and  then  suddenly  collapsed.  The  chaise  was  Calvinism, 
and  Jonathan  Edwards  was  the  deacon  in  the  poem.  The 
poet  ironically  concludes  his  satire  with  the  couplet, 

End  of  the  wonderful  one-hoss  shay. 
Logic  is  logic.  That's  all  I  say. 

The  style  of  The  Freedom  of  the  Will  is  clear  and  forceful, 
even  though  the  abstruseness  of  the  subject-matter  some 
times  makes  the  thought  hard  to  grasp.  The  few  readers 
who  are  attracted  to  this  philosophical  treatise,  readily  and 
even  enthusiastically  affirm  their  admiration  of  the  logical 
force  of  its  thought  and  the  clearness  of  its  style. 

His  Sermons:  "Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God." 
Much  has  been  written  of  Edwards's  sermons  and  the 
peculiar  powers  of  his  public  delivery.  The  theme  most 
frequently  adverted  to  by  our  historians  in  writing  about 
Edwards  as  a  preacher  is  that  illustrated  in  the  fearful 
sermon  called  "Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God." 
It  is  said  that  so  vivid  was  the  preacher's  imagery  and  so 
real  was  the  terrible  punishment  he  portrayed,  that  his 
auditors  trembled  and  cried  out  in  distress  even  in  the 
midst  of  his  discourse.  He  was  himself  quiet  and  calm  in 
the  reading  of  his  sermons, — he  almost  always  spoke  with 
his  manuscript  before  him, —  but  the  clearness  and  vividness 
of  his  portrayals  and  the  terrible  sincerity  of  his  utterances 
wrought  his  hearers  into  a  frenzy  of  excitement.  Another 
theme  which  Edwards  occasionally  dwelt  upon  was  the 
goodness,  mercy,  and  tender  love  of  God  toward  sinful  man, 
and  if  he  excited  his  hearers  to  frenzy  in  his  portrayal  of 
the  tortures  of  the  doomed  sinner,  he  also  wrought  them 
into  an  ecstasy  of  delight  at  the  prospect  of  a  spiritual  union 
with  a  Being  of  such  loving  tenderness,  marvellous  beauty, 
and  infinite  mercy.  He  was,  of  course,  a  strict  Calvinist  in 
his  theology,  and  he  gave  all  the  powers  of  his  great  mind 
to  prove  by  logic  the  truth  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrines; 


30  History  of  American  Literature 

but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  was  a  man  of  wonderful 
sweetness,  purity,  and  spiritual  power  in  his  private  life. 
In  him  were  concentrated  all  of  the  higher  ideals  of  his 
Puritan  ancestors.  Though  his  works  are  beyond  the  inter 
est  and  capacity  of  most  young  readers,  we  may  safely 
assume  that  his  is  the  profoundest  mind  that  expressed 
itself  in  our  early  literature. 

LITERATURE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES 

Characteristics  of  the  literature  of  the  Middle  Colonies. 

With  two  notable  exceptions,  namely,  Woolman's  Journal 
and  Franklin's  Autobiography,  the  literar}r  productions  in 
the  Middle  Colonies  were  rather  mediocre.  New  York  was 
settled  by  the  Dutch,  and  so  played  little  or  no  part  in 
the  early  development  of  American  literature  in  English, 
though  its  early  history  later  furnished  Washington  Irving 
with  a  theme  for  his  delightful  burlesque  called  Knicker 
bocker's  History  of  New  York  and  also  with  material  for  some 
of  his  best  tales  and  sketches.  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey  produced  a  number  of  fairly  good  writers,  and  when 
Franklin  began  his  successful  publishing  business,  Phila 
delphia  became  the  rival  of  Boston  as  the  intellectual  center 
of  the  colonies.  William  Penn,  the  founder  of  the  Quaker 
colony  in  Pennsylvania,  wrote  some  letters  well  worth 
reading  as  a  revelation  of  his  equable  and  peace-loving 
nature.  In  fact,  the  whole  influence  of  Penn's  colony  was 
toward  material  comfort,  spiritual  freedom,  and  popular 
education,  all  of  which  are  conducive  to  the  development  of 
literature  and  the  .other  arts  of  peace.  Not  entirely  in  con 
trast  with  the  Quaker  spirit  was  the  extreme  utilitarian 
philosophy  of  Benjamin  Franklin;  for  industry,  frugality, 
prudence  in  business,  and  practical  honesty  are  quite  as 
distinctive  of  the  Quaker's  character  as  are  purity,  simplicity, 
and  spirituality.  But  undoubtedly  the  Quaker  spirit  is 


The  Colonial  Period  31 

most  perfectly  represented  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  John 
Woolman,  just  as  in  the  nineteenth  century  it  is  best  repre 
sented  by  his  admiring  editor,  John  Greenleaf  Whittier. 

John  Woolman's  "Journal."  The  saintly  Quaker 
preacher,  John  Woolman  (1720-1772),  was  born  on  a  New 
Jersey  farm.  He  became  an  early  advocate  of  the  abolition 
of  slavery,  and  his  whole  life  was  a  protest  against  all  kinds 
of  cruelty  and  oppression.  Though  Woolman  was  an  un 
educated  man,  he  felt  called  by  the  "inner  voice"  to  go 
about  the  colonies  preaching  the  beautiful  Quaker  doctrines 
of  obedience  to  the  spirit  of  God  as  revealed  by  conscience, 
purity  of  life,  evenness  of  temper,  non-resistance  to  evil, 
and  tenderness  and  kindness  toward  all  of  God's  creatures. 
By  his  preaching,  and  especially  by  the  purity  and  sanity  of 
his  own  example,  he  attracted  many  early  adherents  to  the 
anti-slavery  cause  and  led  many  souls  to  accept  his  own 
Quaker  doctrines.  In  a  characteristic  sentence  he  says, 
"I  have  often  felt  a  motion  of  love  to  leave  some  hints  in 
writing  of  my  experience  of  the  goodness  of  God,"  and  so, 
early  in  his  career,  he  began  to  record  his  spiritual  and 
temporal  experiences  in  his  Journal.  The  book  has  been 
called  "the  sweetest  and  purest  autobiography  in  the 
language."  Charles  Lamb  advised  his  readers  to  "get 
the  writings  of  John  Woolman  by  heart";  Henry  Crabb 
Robinson  spoke  of  the  style  of  Woolman's  Journal  as  one 
"of  the  most  exquisite  purity  and  grace";  and  Whittier  in 
his  preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Journal  says  of  it  that  one 
becomes  "sensible,  as  he  reads,  of  a  sweetness  as  of  violets." 
In  spite  of  these  encomiums,  the  average  young  reader  of 
today  will  hardly  find  the  subtle  spirituality  of  the  style 
and  subject-matter  of  this  quiet  record  of  a  Quaker  soul  to 
be  suited  to  his  interests  and  tastes.  However,  Woolman's 
life  was  so  pure  and  his  soul  so  sensitive  to  the  finer  spiritual 
influences  that  we  may  unhesitatingly  pronounce  this  unedu 
cated  tailor  to  be  an  early  American  apostle  of  ' '  sweetness 


32  History  of  American  Literature 

and  light."     The  following  excerpt  from  the  Journal  will 
illustrate  Woolman's  quality. 

I  kept  steadily  to  meetings;  spent  first-days  afternoons  chiefly  in 
reading  the  scriptures  and  other  good  books;  and  was  early  convinced 
in  my  mind,  that  true  religion  consisted  in  an  inward  life,  wherein  the 
heart  doth  love  and  reverence  God  the  Creator,  and  learns  to  exercise 
true  justice  and  goodness,  not  only  toward  all  men,  but  also  toward 
the  brute  creatures  —  that  as  the  mind  was  moved  by  an  inward 
principle  to  love  God  as  an  invisible  incomprehensible  Being,  by  the 
same  principle  it  was  moved  to  love  him  in  all  his  manifestations  in  the 
visible  world  —  that,  as  by  his  breath  the  flame  of  life  was  kindled  in 
all  animal  sensible  creatures,  to  say  we  love  God  as  unseen  and  at  the 
same  time  exercise  cruelty  toward  the  least  creature  moving  by  his 
life,  or  by  life  derived  from  him,  was  a  contradiction  in  itself. 

Thomas  Godfrey.  One  poet  of  the  Middle  Colonies  de 
serves  to  be  remembered  not  only  as  the  author  of  the  first 
tragedy  written  and  acted  in  America,  but  for  the  real  merit 
and  high  promise  of  some  of  his  juvenile  poetical  efforts. 
Thomas  Godfrey  (1736-1763)  was  born  in  Philadelphia. 
After  he  had  attended  school  for  a  few  months,  he  was 
apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
the  French  and  Indian  War,  serving  under  Colonel  George 
Washington,  and  was  later  engaged  in  business  in  Wil 
mington,  North  Carolina.  He  seems  to  have  been  steadily 
attracted  toward  literature.  He  studied  and  found  inspira 
tion  in  the  works  of  Chaucer,  wrote  heroic  couplets  in  the 
manner  of  Pope  and  Dry  den,  and  composed  a  tragedy  in 
blank  verse  after  the  manner  of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists . 
This  last,  "The  Prince  of  Parthia,"1  has  become  noteworthy 
as  the  first  serious  dramatic  composition  produced  in  Amer 
ica.  It  was  composed  in  1759,  published  in  1765,  and 
played  by  a  professional  company  at  Philadelphia  in  1767. 
It  is  written  in  somewhat  high-sounding  and  extravagant 

!This  play  was  reprinted  twice  in  1917,  in  A.  H.  Quinn's  Representative 
American  Plays  and  in  a  separate  volume  edited  by  Archibald  Henderson, 
and  again  in  1918  in  M.  J.  Moses'  Representative  Plays  by  American 
Dramatists,  Vol.  I. 


The  Colonial  Period  33 

blank  verse,  but  it  has  in  it  some  good  qualities  as  a  poetical 
tragedy  and  as  an  acting  play.  It  shows  unmistakable 
evidences  of  close  imitation  of  some  passages  in  Shakespeare's 
tragedies ;  we  must  remember,  however,  that  it  was  the  work 
of  a  very  young  man  and  that  the  imitation  of  English  works 
was  a  common  custom  of  the  day.  In  its  purely  artistic  and 
literary  appeal  it  is  certainly  a  distinct  advance  upon  the 
somber  and  terrifying  poetry  of  the  Puritan  muse  as  rep 
resented  by  Wigglesworth  in  "The  Day  of  Doom." 

Benjamin  Franklin.  If  Jonathan  Edwards  represents  the 
highest  attainment  of  the  Puritan  mind  in  the  metaphysical 
and  spiritual  realm,  Benjamin  Franklin  (1706-1790)  repre 
sents  the  highest  success  in  the  practical  affairs  of  life. 
Though  born  and  reared  in  Boston,  Franklin  spent  the  most 
productive  period  of  his  life  in  Philadelphia,  and  hence  we 
may  speak  of  him  as  the  representative  of  the  Middle 
Colonies.  The  larger  part  of  his  enduring  literary  produc 
tions  properly  belongs  to  the  Revolutionary  period,  but  his 
early  connection  with  journalism  in  the  colonies,  his  publica 
tion  of  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  from  1732  to  1757  (for  the 
years  1733  to  1758),  his  numerous  essays,  his  papers  on 
scientific  and  practical  subjects,  his  humorous  and  satiric 
sketches,  his  reports  of  his  experiences  before  the  English 
Parliament,  all  written  before  1765,  make  it  advisable  to 
discuss  this  great  man  —  printer,  inventor,  statesman, 
patriot,  philosopher,  philanthropist,  and  writer  —  in  the 
Colonial,  rather  than  in  the  Revolutionary  period. 

His  early  life.  The  facts  of  Franklin's  life  are  well  known. 
The  eleventh  and  youngest  son  of  a  soap  boiler  and  tallow 
chandler,  he  was  born  in  Boston,  January  17,  1706.  He  was 
sent  to  school  during  parts  of  two  years  and  then  appren 
ticed  to  the  printer's  trade  under  his  eldest  brother,  owner 
of  one  of  the  early  American  newspapers,  The  New  Eng 
land  Courant.  Franklin  had  little  formal  education,  but 
he  was  a  close  student  and  a  careful  and  tireless  reader; 


34 


History  of  American  Literature 


and  naturally  in  his  trade  of  printer  he  soon  acquired  a  good 
practical  English  education.     He  wrote  some  brief  essays 


Courtesy  of  the  Bostonian  Society 
THE  PRESS  AND   TYPE  CASES  USED   BY  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN 

in  imitation  of  Addison's  Spectator  papers,  a  volume  of 
which  he  found  in  his  father's  library.  During  the  night  he 
slipped  them  under  the  door  of  his  brother's  printing  shop, 
and  was  pleased  to  find  that  his  compositions  were  deemed 


The  Colonial  Period  35 

worthy  of  publication  and  that  they  attracted  considerable 
favorable  comment  when  they  appeared  in  print.  Dis 
satisfied  with  the  treatment  he  was  receiving  at  the  hands 
of  his  brother,  Franklin,  having  been  accidentally  freed  from 
the  bonds  of  his  apprenticeship  by  a  legal  ruse  of  his  brother's, 
ran  away  when  he  was  seventeen  years  old,  passed  through 
New  York,  and  landed  in  Philadelphia,  where  he  found 
employment  in  his  trade.  Everyone  knows  the  story  of  his 
ludicrous  entry  into  Philadelphia,  as  it  is  described  in  the 
Autobiography.  Franklin  seems  to  take  keen  delight  in 
telling  how  he  walked  down  Market  Street,  his  pockets 
stuffed  with  his  extra  shirt  and  stockings,  a  big  puffy  roll 
under  each  arm,  while  he  was  eating  on  a  third,  thus  provok 
ing  by  his  comical  appearance  the  laughter  of  Miss  Deborah 
Read,  the  young  woman  who  afterward  became  his  wife. 

His  later  attainments.  By  his  industry  and  energy,  Frank 
lin  prospered  in  his  trade  and  presently  attracted  the  atten 
tion  of  Governor  Keith,  who  promised  him  letters  of  credit 
and  sent  him  to  England  to  buy  a  printing  outfit.  The 
governor  failed  him,  and  Franklin  found  himself  in  London 
without  money  or  credit.  He  managed  to  get  work  at  his 
trade,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  make  a  study  of  the  most 
advanced  methods  of  printing  as  practiced  in  England. 
After  eighteen  months  he  returned  to  Philadelphia,  bought 
The  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  and  began  a  publishing  business 
on  his  own  account.  He  soon  rose  to  a  position  of  influence 
and  prominence  in  the  colony.  His  almanacs,  the  first  of 
which  was  printed  in  1732  for  the  year  1733,  contained, 
besides  the  regular  information  in  such  publications,  a 
lot  of  useful  and  entertaining  matter,  including  the  quaint 
proverbs  and  humorous  sayings  of  Richard  Saunders,  or 
"Poor  Richard,"  the  supposed  author  of  the  almanacs. 
The  publications  became  exceedingly  popular  and  profitable, 
as  many  as  10,000  copies  being  sold  annually.  Franklin's 
success  as  a  publisher  was  now  assured.  Presently  he 


History  of  American  Literature 


had  accumulated  for  himself  a  very  comfortable  fortune, 
and  he  retired  from  active  business  to  devote  himself  to 
public  services  of  one  kind  or  another.  He  projected  many 
schemes  for  bettering  the  life  of  his  city  and  the  colonies 


Almanack 


For  the  Year  of  Chrift 


Poor  Richard,  1733, 


A  N 


Being  the  Firfl  after  I  E AP  YEAR: 

Jnd  ifiatet  f»"  the  Creation  Years 

By  the  Account- of  the  E  firm  GrrtJrt  724 

By  the  Latin  Church,   whrn  O  «rn»   V         691 
By  the  Computation  of  US  U{ 
By  the  Roman  Chronology 
By  the  Jnuijb  Babbles 

Wherein  it  contained 

merit  of 

the  Weather,  Spring  Tides, 

mutual  Afpe£K.  Sun  2nd  Moon's  Rifmg  and  Set- 


5742 
5681 
5494 


The  Lunations,   Eclipfcs,  Judgme 

Planets  Motion*  & 
n's  Rifmg  and  Set 

ting,  Length  of  Days,  Time  of  High  Waicr. 
Fairs,  Courts,  and  obfcrvable  Day* 
Fitted  totheLamudeoi  Forfv  Degrees, 
and  a  Meridian  of  Five  Hours  Wdt  Gorr.  fonJm, 
but  mny  without  fcnfiMc  Error  frrvrali  the  ad 
jacent  Places,  even  from  HrwfoundlanJ  to  S6uth- 
Carotna. 


by  RICH4RD  S/fUNDERS,  Philom. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

Punted  and  fold  by  B  FRJNKLIN.  at  rhr  Wew 

Printing  Officr  neai  ihe  MaiTtct. 


TITLE  PAGE  OF  FIRST  ISSUE  OF  POOR  RICHARD 

generally.  He  was  especially  interested  in  various  educa 
tional  projects,  and  he  is  now  revered  as  the  founder  of  the 
Philadelphia  Library,  of  the  academy  which  eventually 
became  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society.  He  very  greatly  improved  the 
postal  service  of  the  city  when  he  became  postmaster  of 


BENJAMIN   FRANKLIN 
From  a  statue  by  R.  H.  Park  which  stands  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago. 


The  Colonial  Period  37 

Philadelphia,  and  afterward,  when  he  was  appointed 
postmaster  general,  of  the  whole  colony.  He  invented 
many  useful  devices,  among  them  the  Franklin  stove 
and  the  lightning  rod,  and  he  refused  to  take  out  patents, 
preferring  to  give  his  inventions  to  the  public  without 
restrictions.  In  scientific  investigations  Franklin  made  no 
table  advances,  particularly  in  his  electrical  experiments,  in 
which  he  demonstrated  that  lightning  was  but  a  mani 
festation  of  electricity.  He  was  regarded  as  one  of  the 
wisest  investigators  of  his  day,  and  the  leading  foreign 
nations  vied  with  each  other  in  awarding  him  distinguished 
honors  for  his  scientific  discoveries. 

His  services  to  the  government.  His  participation  in  the 
foreign  and  domestic  politics  of  his  country  was  so  large 
that  we  can  merely  glance  at  his  activities  in  this  sphere. 
He  was  sent  to  England  to  represent  the  colony  in  several 
disputes  that  had  arisen  with  the  proprietors,  and  his  success 
in  clearing  up  these  troubles  led  to  his  appointment  on  a 
commission  to  protest  against  the  policy  of  the  English 
government  in  enforcing  the  Stamp  Act  and  other  obnoxious 
laws.  He  remained  in  England  for  about  eighteen  years 
in  all,  and  during  this  time  he  served  well  the  interests 
of  the  colonies.  While  he  made  a  profound  impression  upon 
the  English  government  and  succeeded  for  a  time  in  pre 
venting  drastic  action  against  the  colonists,  he  was  unable  to 
secure  permanent  relief,  and  he  finally  returned  to  America 
to  become  an  ardent  supporter  of  the  Revolution  and  a 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Perhaps  the 
best  service  he  rendered  to  the  cause  was  his  successful 
mission  to  France  to  secure  the  aid  of  that  country  in  our 
struggle  against  England.  He  remained  in  France  for  a 
number  of  years,  representing  later  the  new  government 
at  the  French  court,  where  he  was  by  far  the  most 
admired  and  courted  man  in  the  diplomatic  circle.  Upon 
his  return  to  America  in  1785,  he  was  chosen  governor  of 


38  History  of  American  Literature 

Pennsylvania,  elected  to  the  Constitutional  Convention  in 
1787,  and  honored  in  many  other  ways  by  his  countrymen. 
He  died  February  12,  1790,  one  of  the  best-loved  and  most 
highly  respected  citizens  of  the  new  republic.  Among 
our  Revolutionary  heroes  he  shares  with  Washington  the 


From  a  painting  by  Henry  Bacon 
FRANKLIN   IN   HIS    GARDEN 

love  and  gratitude  of  the  nation,  and  doubtless,  through 
the  familiar  proverbs  of  the  almanacs  and  the  widely  read 
Autobiography,  his  personality  is  even  better  known  .than 
that  of  the  "Father  of  his  Country." 

His  philosophy:  the  almanacs.  Franklin's  philosophy  of 
life  has  been  sometimes  condemned  as  entirely  too  prac 
tical  and  utilitarian.  There  is  no  question  but  that  there 
is  too  much  emphasis  on  the  material  and  too  little  on  the 
spiritual  in  his  view  of  life;  but  we  must  remember  that  such 
a  practical  philosophy  as  Franklin  preached  from  his  pulpits 
of  newspaper  and  almanac  was  needed  to  balance  the 
extreme  idealism  of  such  men  as  Jonathan  Edwards  among 
the  Puritans  and  John  Woolman  among  the  Quakers.  It 


The  Colonial  Period  39 

was  through  the  almanacs  that  Franklin  reached  his  largest 
audience,  for  his  publications  of  this  kind  were  well  thumbed 
in  practically  every  household  of  the  colonies.  The  selec 
tions  of  verse,  witty  sayings,  amusing  sketches,  and  bits  of 
superstitious  lore  added  something  to  the  popularity  of  the 
almanacs,  but  it  was  the  practical  proverbs  and  utilitarian 
philosophy  which  made  the  deepest  and  most  abiding  impres 
sion  on  the  colonial  mind.  In  the  last  of  the  almanacs,  the 
one  for  1758,  Poor  Richard  gathered  up  the  best  of  all  the 
proverbs  in  a  final  discourse  in  the  form  of  a  report  of 
"Father  Abraham's  Speech."  It  is  said  that  this  com 
pendium  of  Poor  Richard's  sayings  was  by  far  the  most 
widely  read  piece  of  colonial  literature.  It  was  translated 
into  practically  every  modern  foreign  language;  since  its 
first  publication  it  has  been  printed  in  more  than  four  hun 
dred  editions.  Under  various  titles  the  discourse  was  struck 
off  on  broadsheets  and  freely  distributed  among  the  poorer 
working  classes  to  encourage  thrift,  industry,  frugality, 
prudence,  perseverance,  and  honesty.  The  following  prov 
erbs  or  "Sayings  of  Poor  Richard"  taken  from  "Father 
Abraham's  Speech,"  though  by  no  means  all  original,  will 
illustrate  the  kind  of  maxims  which  Franklin  was  constantly 
repeating  in  his  almanacs. 

1 .  Be  ashamed  to  catch  yourself  idle. 

2.  Drive  thy  business,  let  not  that  drive  thee. 

3.  Light  strokes  fell  great  oaks. 

4.  Three  removes  are  as  bad  as  a  fire. 

5.  He  that  by  the  plow  would  thrive 
Himself  must  either  hold  or  drive. 

6.  At  a  great  pennyworth,  pause  awhile. 

7.  Plow  deep  while  sluggards  sleep 

And  you  shall  have  corn  to  sell  and  to  keep. 

8.  A  plowman  on  his  legs  is  higher  than  a  gentleman  on  his  knees. 

9.  If  you  would  know  the  value  of  money,  go  and  try  to  borrow 

some;  for  he  who  goes  a  borrowing  goes  a  sorrowing. 
10.  Creditors  are  a  superstitious  sect,  great  observers  of  set  days  and 
times. 


4o  History  of  American  Literature 

11.  It  is  hard  for  ah  empty  bag  to  stand  upright. 

12.  Experience  keeps  a  dear  school,  but  fools  will  learn  in  no  other, 

and  scarce  in  that* 

The  "Autobiography"  Though  Franklin  was  not  primarily 
an  author,  for  the  best  efforts  of  his  life  were  given  to  busi 
ness,  diplomacy,  statesmanship,  and  practical  philanthropy, 
he  succeeded  in  writing  the  now  m'ost  widely  read  "classic"  of 
the  two  literary  periods  in  which  his  life  falls.  The  Auto 
biography  is  a  book  which  everyone,  particularly  every 
American,  should  read.  It  is  full  of  practical  wisdom,  sound 
advice,  and  the  revelation  of  a  fascinating  personality — all 
presented  in  an  admirably  lively,  forceful,  and  simple  prose 
style.  The  book  is  preeminently  human  and  natural,  and 
richly  deserves  the  high  rank  it  has  attained.  It  is  unques 
tionably  the  one  outstanding  masterpiece  of  our  early 
literature.  Further  analysis  of  or  quotation  from  this 
"classic"  is  unnecessary,  for  every  American  boy  and  girl 
should  read  the  entire  book.1 

SELECTED   BIBLIOGRAPHIES 

SUITABLE   FOR   HIGH-SCHOOL   LIBRARIES  AND 
OUTSIDE   READING 

General  Reference  Books  for  American  Literature 

Starred  volumes  are  especially  valuable  for  high-school  libraries. 

*S.  L.  WHITCOMB,  Chronological  Outlines  of  American  Literature;  Mac- 
millan,  N.  Y.,  1894. 

"CHARLES  F.  RICHARDSON,  American  Literature;  Putnam,  N.  Y.,  1897. 

BARRETT  WENDELL,  A  Literary  History  of  America;  Scribner,  N.  Y.,  1901. 

*W.  P.  TRENT,  A  History  of  American  Literature;  Appleton,  N.  Y.,  1904. 

""THEODORE  STANTON,  editor,  A  Manual  of  American  Literature;  Putnam, 
N.  Y.,  1909.  (This  volume  contains  in  greatly  reduced  form 
Moses  Coit  Tyler's  four  volumes  on  the  history  of  Colonial  and 
Revolutionary  literature,  together  with  chapters  by  various  hands 
on  the  different  classes  of  American  writers  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Valuable  as  a  reference  volume  or  handbook.) 

iSee  the  excellent  illustrated  school  edition  edited  by  George  B.  Alton, 
in  the  Canterbury  Classics,  Rand  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago. 


The  Colonial  Period  41 

*W.  B.  CAIRNS,  A  History  of  American  Literature;  Oxford  University 

Press,  N.  Y.,  1916. 
* Cambridge  History  of  American  Literature;  3  vols.,  Cambridge  Press, 

Cambridge,  England,  and  N.  Y.,  1917-1919. 
E.   A.   and   G.   L.    DUYCKINCK,    Cyclopadia    of  American  Literature, 

Embracing  Personal  and  Critical  Notices  of  Authors  and  Selections 

from  Their  Writings;  2  vols.,  Scribner,  N.  Y.,  1856. 
*STEDMAN  and  HUTCHINSON,  Library  of  American  Literature;  n  vols., 

Benjamin,  N.  Y.,  1888-90. 
ALDERMAN,  HARRIS,  and  KENT,  Library  of  Southern  Literature;  16  vols., 

Martin  and  Hoyt,  Atlanta,  1907-1913. 
*A.  B.  HART,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries;  4  vols.,  Mac- 

millan,  N.  Y.,  1898.    (This  is  a  valuable  reference  book  both  for 

history  and  for  literature  classes.) 
Old  South  Leaflets;  Directors  of  Old  South  Meeting  House,  Boston, 

various  dates.     (The   leaflets   have   been  bound  in  six  or  more 

volumes,  and  in  this  form  they  afford  much  good  miscellaneous 

source-reading  in  American  history  and  literature.) 

Special  Reference  Books  for  Colonial  Literature1 
i.  History  of  Literature  and  Selections 

?TYLER,  History  of  American  Literature,   Colonial  Period,  1617-1765; 

2  vols.,  Putnam,  N.  Y.,  1897.     (Also  Student's  Edition  in  one 

volume,  1909.) 
TRENT  and  WELLS,  Colonial  Prose  and  Poetry;  3  vols.,  Crowell,  N.  Y., 

1901. 
*W.  B.  CAIRNS,  Selections  from  Early  American  Writers,  1607-1800; 

Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1909.     (This  is  the  best  single  volume  reference 

book  on  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  Periods.     It  contains 

brief  biographical  sketches  and  abundant  selections  for  high-school 

or  college  classes.) 

STEDMAN  and  HUTCHINSON,    Library  of  American  Literature,  Vols.  I 
and  II. 

HART,  American  History  Told  by  Contemporaries,  Vols.  I  and  II. 
2.  Later  Poetry  Dealing  with  Colonial  Times 

LONGFELLOW,  "The  Skeleton  in  Armor,"  "Hiawatha,"  "The  Court 
ship  of  Miles  Standish,"  "Evangeline,"  etc. 


iThe  important  works  named  in  the  body  of  the  text  are  not  listed  here. 
4 


42  History  oj  American  Literature 

SCOLLARD,  "The  First  Thanksgiving." 

HOLMES.  "The  Pilgrim's  Vision,"  "On  Lending  a  Punch  Bowl,"  "Song 
for  the  Centennial  Celebration  of  Harvard,"  "The  Deacon's 
Masterpiece,"  "The  Broomstick  Train;  or,  The  Return  of  the 
Witches,"  etc. 

ENGLISH,  "The  Burning  of  Jamestown." 

WHITTIER,  "The  Preacher." 

THACKERAY,  "Pocahontas." 

LANIER,  "Psalm  of  the  West." 

(See  Burton  E.  Stevenson's  Poems  of  American  History,  Houghton  Mifflin, 
Boston,  1908,  for  fuller  list  of  poems  dealing  with  the  Colonial  Period.) 

j.  Later  Fiction  Dealing  with  Colonial  Times 

IRVING,  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York  (humorous),  "Rip  Van 
Winkle,"  etc. 

COOPER,  The  Leather-Stocking  Tales, — The  Pioneers,  The  Last  of  the 
Mohicans,  The  Prairie,  The  Pathfinder,  The  Deerslayer  (some  of 
these  may  be  classed  in  Revolutionary  times), — The  Wept  of  Wish- 
Ton-Wish  (War  of  King  Philip  of  Pokanoket),  The  Red  Skins,  The 
Red  Rover. 

SIMMS,  The  Yemassee,  a  Romance  of  Carolina. 

COOKE,  My  Lady  Pocahontas,  Fairfax. 

HAWTHORNE,  The  Scarlet  Letter,  Grandfather's  Chair,  Mosses  from  an 
Old  Manse,  and  Twice-Told  Tales  (especially  "TheGray  Champion," 
"The  Gentle  Boy,"  "The  Maypole  of  Merry  Mount,"  and  "Legends 
of  the  Province  House,"  including  "Howe's  Masquerade,"  "Edward 
Randolph's  Portrait,"  "Lady  Eleanore's  Mantle,"  "Old  Esther 
Dudley,"  etc.) 

PAULDING,  The  Dutchman's  Fireside. 

STIMSON,  King  Noanett,  a  Story  of  the  Devon  Settlers  in  Old  Virginia 
and  Massachusetts  Bay. 

HOLLAND,  The  Bay  Path,  a  Tale  of  New  England  Colonial  Life. 

EGGLESTON,  Pocahontas  and  Powhatan. 

AUSTIN,  Standish  of  Standish,  Betty  Alden,  etc. 

BARR,  A  Bow  of  Orange  Ribbon  (Dutch  New  York),  Black  Shilling 
(Salem  witchcraft). 

JOHNSTON,  To  Have  and  To  Hold,  Prisoners  of  Hope,  A  udrey,  etc. 

SEDGWICK,  Hope  Leslie,  or  Early  Times  in  Massachusetts,  etc. 


The  Colonial  Period  43 

4.  Essays  and  Historical  Works  Dealing  with  Colonial  Times 
EMERSON,  "Historical   Discourse   on   the    Second    Centennial   of   the 

Incorporation  of  the  Town  of  Concord." 
LOWELL,  "New  England  Two  Centuries  Ago,"  and  "Witchcraft"  (in 

Literary  Essays,  Vol.  II). 
LODGE,  English  Colonies  in  America. 
DOYLE,  English  Colonies  in  America  (3  vols.). 
DRAKE,    The    Making   of  New   England,    The   Making   of    Virginia, 

The  Middle  Colonies. 
FISKE,  Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors,  The  Beginnings  of  New  England, 

The  Dutch  and  Quaker  Colonies  in  America. 
EARLE,  Colonial  Days  in  Old  New  York,  Costume  of  Colonial  Times, 

Customs  and  Fashions  in  Old  New  England. 
PARKMAN,  Historical  Works.  (These  give  a  trustworthy  and  entertaining 

account  of  the  struggle  for  supremacy  in  America,   portraying 

particularly  the  French  settlements  and  Indian  life  in  connection. 

See  the  discussion  of  Parkman  on  pp.  227,  228. 


II.     THE  REVOLUTIONARY  AND  FORMATIVE 
PERIOD,    1765-1800 

PRELIMINARY   STATEMENT 

The  Revolutionary  period.  Strictly  speaking,  the  Revo 
lution  extends  from  the  beginning  of  hostilities  in  1775  to 
the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1783 ;  but  for  a  survey  of  Revolu 
tionary  literature  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  get  an  adequate 
conception  of  the  political,  patriotic,  and  general  literary 
productions  incident  to  the  period,  to  include  the  years 
immediately  preceding  and  immediately  following  the  actual 
conflict.  We  have  therefore  chosen  the  year  of  the  Stamp 
Act  Congress,  1765,  which  marks  the  first  formal  protest  by 
the  colonies  against  the  mother  country,  and  the  year  1800, 
marking  the  turn  of  the  century  and  the  electior  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  third  president  of  the  United  States,  as  the  inclu 
sive  dates  of  the  Revolutionary  and  Formative  period  of 
our  literature. 

General  characteristics.  The  literature  of  these  tumul 
tuous  and  significant  years  in  the  history  of  our  nation  is 
naturally  colored  by  the  important  activities  of  the  times, 
and  hence  is  largely  controversial  in  nature,  the  first  part 
of  the  period  presenting  the  controversy  between  the  colonies 
and  the  English  government,  or  the  Whigs  and  the  Tories; 
and  the  second  part  of  the  period  showing  the  controversy 
resulting  from  the  conflicting  interests  of  the  various  colonies, 
which  finally  crystalized  in  the  two  opposing  political 
parties  that  arose  out  of  the  discussion  of  the  nature  and 
limitations  of  the  newly  formed  constitutional  govern 
ment.  Hence  this  is  the  age  par  excellence  of  the  orator 
and  the  statesman.  Patriotic  speeches,  state  papers,  gov 
ernmental  essays,  and  political  pamphlets  of  every  kind 
abound  and  make  up  the  distinctive  literature  of  the  period. 

[44] 


The  Revolutionary  Period  45 

Poetry  becomes  more  prominent  than  it  was  in  the  colonial 
period,  but  still  takes  a  minor  position,  being  largely  satirical 
or  national  and  patriotic  in  tendency,  and  strongly  colored 
by  the  prevailing  political  thought  of  the  times.  Very 
little  purely  artistic  literature  of  any  kind  was  produced; 
native  drama  was  in  its  infancy;  not  until  the  very  end 
of  the  period  did  imaginative  poetry  and  fiction  emerge, 
and  even  then  only  two  names  stand  out  with  any  distinct 
prominence  or  promise — namely,  Philip  Freneau  in  poetry 
and  Charles  Brockden  Brown  in  prose  fiction.  Practically 
all  the  important  writers  of  the  period  are  satirists,  political 
essayists,  publicists,  and  statesmen.  While  this  contro 
versial  and  political  literature  of  Revolutionary  times  is 
extremely  valuable  as  a  basis  of  historical  interpretation, 
and  while  some  of  it,  by  virtue  of  the  sincere  passion, 
patriotic  fervor,  and  moral  earnestness  which  gave  it 
birth,  approaches  the  borders  of  art,  yet  it  is  not  purely 
artistic  literature,  and  the  high-school  student  may  pass 
rapidly  over  this  period  of  our  literary  history,  so  far  as 
making  a  minute  study  of  its  products  is  concerned. 


HISTORICAL  BACKGROUND 

Growth  of  the  opposition  to  British  rule.  To  enable  one 
to  gain  a  satisfactory  comprehension  of  the  literature  of 
the  Revolutionary  period,  a  brief  resume  of  the  events  lead 
ing  toward  a  firmer  union  of  the  various  colonies  will  be 
essential.  Though  as  early  as  1760  some  distinct  mutter- 
ings  were  heard,  it  was  not  until  1765  that  the  condemnation 
of  England's  governmental  policies  became  open  and 
formidable.  About  this  time  the  agitation  concerning  the 
method  by  which  the  colonies  should  be  governed  crystalized 
itself  in  the  colonial  mind  in  the  familiar  phrase  "no  taxation 
without  representation."  The  Navigation  Acts,  Acts  of 
Trade,  and  other  forms  of  restrictive  legislation  aimed  at 


46  History  of  American  Literature 

the  colonies  were  resisted  by  open  violation  and  smuggling 
operations.  The  British  government  issued  Writs  of 
Assistance  in  1761,  giving  authority  to  customs  officials  to 
search  for  smuggled  goods  in  any  suspected  place.  This 
aroused  immense  indignation  in  the  colonies.1  The  Stamp 
Act  was  passed  in  1765,  and  in  October  of  that  year 
the  different  colonies  sent  representatives  to  New  York 
to  consider  the  situation  and  make  a  formal  protest. 
This  convention  was  known  as  the  Stamp  Act  Con 
gress.  It  drew  up  a  succinct  "Declaration  of  Rights  and 
Grievances  of  the  Colonists,"  and  sent  it,  along  with 
a  petition  for  relief,  to  the  English  government.  The 
Stamp  Act  was  repealed,  but  Parliament  declared  its  right 
to  tax  the  colonies,  and  passed  a  new  tariff  or  excise  tax 
measure  almost  immediately.  This  measure  brought  forth 
an  increasing  storm  of  protest  from  the  colonists,  and  as  a 
compromise  all  the  duties  imposed,  except  that  on  tea,  were 
repealed.  The  British  government  sent  troops  to  Massa 
chusetts  to  enforce  its  authority,  and  in  1770  open  violence 
between  the  citizens  and  the  soldiers  resulted  in  the  death 
of  five  colonists.  The  English  authorities  shortly  afterward 
withdrew  th§  troops  from  Boston,  where  the  massacre 
occurred,  and  thus  avoided  further  immediate  trouble. 
Committees  of  Correspondence  between  the  different 
colonial  governments  were  appointed,  and  under  the  leader 
ship  of  such  men  as  Samuel  Adams  in  Massachusetts  and 
Patrick  Henry  in  Virginia  the  spirit  of  united  resistance 
against  the  mother  country  was  kept  alive.  The  first 
Continental  Congress  met  in  Philadelphia  in  1774.  In 
1775  the  famous  Boston  Tea  Party  took  place,  and  a  con 
flict  of  arms  between  the  colonists  and  the  British  soldiers 
became  at  once  imminent.  Hostilities  began  almost  imme 
diately,  the  celebrated  fights  at  Concord  and  Lexington 
taking  place  on  April  19,  1775.  The  Second  Continental 

the  account  of  Otis's  speech,  p.  49. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  47 

Congress  convened  at  Philadelphia  in  1775,  and  on  July  4, 
1776,  independence  was  declared.  The  war  was  brought  to 
a  successful  conclusion  with  the  defeat  of  Cornwallis  in 
1781,  and  with  the  treaty  of  peace  which  followed  in  1783, 
England  recognized  the  complete  independence  of  the  thir 
teen  American  Colonies. 

Formation  of  the  Union.  Then  came  the  period  of  the 
formation  of  the  new  government.  The  Continental  Con 
gress  was  acknowledged  to  be  but  a  makeshift  to  meet  the 
needs  of.  the  colonists  during  the  war.  The  Articles  of  Con 
federation  under  which  Congress  operated  were  but  a  loosely 
defined  set  of  agreements,  with  no  means  of  enforcement 
except  through  the  acquiescence  and  voluntary  support  of 
the  various  colonies.  So  long  as  the  war  lasted,  the  spirit 
of  mutual  protection  banded  the  colonies  together;  and  the 
final  success  of  the  Revolution  undoubtedly  gave  a  strong 
impetus  toward  the  continuation  of  centralized  power  in 
the  federal  government.  But  naturally  differences  of  opin 
ion  and  jealousies  between  the  different  governments  arose, 
and  the  confederation  was  seriously  threatened.  From  1783 
to  1788  the  life  of  the  new  government  hung  in  the  balance. 
Under  the  influence  of  Washington,  Hamilton,  Samuel 
Adams,  and  others,  agitation  for  a  convention  began,  and 
in  1787  the  Federal  Constitutional  Convention  assembled 
in  Philadelphia.  The  many  differences  of  opinion  were 
finally  settled,  and  the  Constitution  was  framed  upon  the 
tri-partite  plan  of  executive,  legislative,  and  judiciary  func 
tions.  The  instrument  was  submitted  to  the  states  for 
ratification  in  the  latter  part  of  1787,  and  during  the  next 
year  occurred  the  great  popular  discussion  of  the  merits 
and  defects  of  the  new  scheme  of  federal  government.  The 
Constitution  was  finally  adopted  by  eleven  states,  and 
Washington  was  the  unanimous  choice  for  the  first  presi 
dent.  During  the  following  years  there  gradually  sprang 
up  two  opposing  parties,  led  respectively  by  Alexander 


48  History  of  American  Literature 

Hamilton  and  Thomas  Jefferson.  "The  final  form  taken 
by  these  two  parties  depended  much  upon  the  character  of 
their  leaders.  Hamilton,  a  man  of  great  personal  force 
and  of  strong  aristocratic  feeling,  represented  the  principle 
of  authority,  of  government  framed  and  administered  by  a 
select  few  for  the  benefit  of  their  fellows.  Jefferson,  an 
advocate  of  popular  government  extended  to  a  point  never 
before  reached,  declared  that  his  party  was  made  up  of 
those  'who  identified  themselves  with  the  people,  have  confi 
dence  in  them,  cherish  and  consider  them  as  the  most 
honest  and  safe,  although  not  the  most  wise,  depositary  of 
the  public  interest.'  "* 

An  estimate  of  Revolutionary  literature.  Upon  and  around 
these  historical  facts  revolves  the  great  mass  of  our  contro 
versial  literature  which  sprang  up  during  this  period.  As 
Professor  Moses  Coit  Tyler  says:  "The  literature  of  our 
Revolution  has  everywhere  the  combative  note,  its  habitual 
method  is  argumentative,  persuasive,  appealing,  rasping, 
retaliatory;  the  very  brain  seems  to  be  in  armor;  his  wit  is 
in  the  gladiator's  attitude  of  offense  and  defense.  It  is  a 
literature  indulging  itself  in  grimaces,  in  mockery,  in  scowls; 
a  literature  accented  by  earnest  gestures  meant  to  convince 
the  people,  or  by  fierce  blows  meant  to  smite  them  down. 
In  this  literature  we  must  not  expect  to  find  art  used  for 
art's  sake."2 

THE  ORATORS 

Nature  of  oratory.  Among  the  orators  who  supported 
the  cause  of  the  colonists  were  James  Otis  (1725-1783), 
Samuel  Adams  (1722-1803),  and  John  Adams  (1735-1826), 
all  of  Massachusetts,  and  Patrick  Henry  (1736-1799)  of 
Virginia.  Of  these  James  Otis  and  Patrick  Henry  are 

iA.  B.  Hart,  Formation  of  the  Union,  p.  155. 

2  Moses  Coit  Tyler,  Literary  History  of  the  American  Revolution,  176 3~ 
1783,  Vol.  I,  p.  6. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  49 

typical  Revolutionary  orators.  Oratory  is  usually  born 
of  an  occasion,  and  when  the  occasion  has  passed  the  oration 
becomes  largely  a  mere  memory  to  those  who  heard  the 
spoken  words.  Hence  there  is  little  literary  permanency 
in  the  popular  oratory  born  of  a  moment  and  uttered  under 
the  stress  of  fiery  emotion.  The  reputation  of  the  orator 
survives,  but  his  extemporaneous  speeches,  delivered  under 
the  excitement  and  inspiration  of  the  occasion,  usually  pass 
away  with  the  breath  which  gives  them  utterance.  This 
is  precisely  what  happened  in  the  case  of  Otis,  and  it  is 
almost  precisely  what  happened  in  the  case  of  Henry's 
passionate  extemporaneous  orations. 

James  Otis.  The  most  famous  of  Otis's  speeches  is  the 
one  delivered  in  1761  at  Boston  in  opposition  to  the  Writs 
of  Assistance  or  warrants  of  search  in  private  homes  for 
smuggled  goods.  No  authentic  reproduction  has  come  down 
to  us,  but  John  Adams,  who  heard  the  speech,  made  notes 
of  it,  and  in  his  later  reminiscences  he  spoke  of  Otis  on  this 
occasion  as  a  flame  of  fire,  and  the  hour  of  the  delivery  of 
the  speech  as  the  real  birth  hour  of  American  independence. 
In  the  course  of  his  argument  Otis  declared  that  the  Navi 
gation  Acts  were  "a  taxation  law  made  by  a  foreign  legis 
lature  without  our  consent,"  and  this  phrase  in  a  slightly 
changed  form  became  the  chief  slogan  of  the  Revolutionary 
agitators.  Otis  was  advocate-general  of  the  colony,  but 
he  gave  up  this  lucrative  position  under  the  crown  rather 
than  support  the  nefarious  Writs  of  Assistance.  He  threw 
himself  wholly  into  the  cause  of  the  colonists  in  their  resist 
ance  to  these  oppressive  laws  and  wrote  several  pamphlets 
distinguished  by  calmness  and  judicial  poise  quite  in  con 
trast  with  the  passionate  eloquence  in  his  speeches;  among 
them  is  the  sound  and  conservative  argument  called 
"The  Rights  of  the  British  Colonies  Asserted  and  Proved" 
(1764).  In  a  personal  affray  with  some  of  his  political 
enemies,  Otis  suffered  -injuries  from  which  he  later  lost  his 


50  History  of  American  Literature 

mind  and  died,  and  thus  he  may  be  counted  among  the  very 
earliest  martyrs  to  the  cause  of  American  liberty  and 
independence. 

Patrick  Henry:  his  "Speech  on  Liberty."  Patrick  Henry 
(1736-1799)  was  a  typical  Southern  statesman,  born  of  good 
family  and  representing  the  conservative  and  independent 
and  at  the  same  time  emotional  ideals  of  Virginia.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  in  1765,  and  here 
he  first  won  fame  in  the  discussion  of  the  Stamp  Act  by 
making  the  famous  comparison  which  brought  out  the  cry  of 
"Treason!  Treason !"  from  the  loyalist  members.  "Caesar 
had  his  Brutus ;  Charles  the  First  had  his  Cromwell ;  and  George 
the  Third," — here  the  speaker  was  interrupted,  but  he  calmly 
concluded  in  the  midst  of  the  cries  of  "Treason," — "may 
profit  by  their  example.  If  this  be  treason,  make  the  most 
of  it."  In  1775  he  made  another  famous  speech,  which  has 
come  down  to  us  through  the  report  given  by  William  Wirt, 
himself  an  excellent  orator  and  prose  writer  of  the  early 
nineteenth  century.  How  much  of  Henry's  "Speech  on 
Liberty"  is  due  to  Wirt's  own  composition  from  his  memory 
of  the  speech,  it  is  now  impossible  to  tell;  but  there  is  no 
question  of  the  masterly  style,  ardent  passion,  and  moving 
power  exhibited  in  the  famous  oration  now  made  almost  uni 
versally  familiar  by  innumerable  declamatory  repetitions. 
It  begins,  "Mr.  President,  it  is  natural  to  man  to  indulge 
in  the  illusions  of  hope,"  and  -ends  with  the  magnificent 
peroration, 

It  is  vain,  sir,  to  extenuate  the  matter.  Gentlemen  may  cry,  "peace, 
peace!" — but  there  is  no  peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun!  The 
next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to  our  ears  the  clash 
of  resounding  arms!  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field!  Why 
stand  we  here  idle?  What  is  it  that  gentlemen  wish?  What  would 
they  have?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the 
price  of  chains  and  slavery!  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God!  I  know  not 
what  course  others  may  take,  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me 
death! 


The  Revolutionary  Period  51 

Henry's  later  speeches.  In  the  discussions  which  followed 
the  submitting  of  the  Constitution  to  the  several  colonies 
for  ratification,  Henry  opposed  the  adoption  of  the  new 
form  of  federal  government.  He  feared  the  results  of  too 
much  concentration  or  centralization  of  power.  He  even 
went  so  far  as  to  suggest  that  under  the  proposed  plan  the 
president  might  easily  make  himself  king,  and  the  colonies 
would  again  be  subjected  to  the  yoke  of  a  monarchical 
form  of  government.  In  spite  of  Henry's  opposition,  how 
ever,  Virginia  finally  adopted  the  Constitution.  The  later 
speeches  of  the  great  orator  were  more  authentically  recorded 
than  the  earlier  famous  one  reported  by  Wirt,  for  they  were 
taken  down  in  shorthand,  with  perhaps  a  few  verbal  inaccu 
racies,  as  they  were  delivered  in  the  Virginia  Convention. 
The  style  shows  all  the  powerful  appeal  of  the  traditional 
orator — climactic  periods,  exclamatory  sentences,  rhetorical 
questions,  and  passionate  outbursts — but  the  quality  is 
more  purely  argumentative  and  less  perfervid  than  the 
highly  emotional  style  of  the  "Speech  on  Liberty."  All  in 
all  we  may  rank  Patrick  Henry  as  the  most  illustrious  of 
our  Revolutionary  orators. 

POLITICAL  WRITERS 

Samuel  Adams.  Samuel  Adams  (1722-1803)  and  his 
kinsman  John  Adams  have  been  named  among  the  orators, 
but  their  influence  was  probably  greater  as  political  writers 
than  as  speakers.  Samuel  Adams  has  been  singled  out 
by  Englishmen  as  the  man  who  was  the  greatest  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  a  peaceful  adjustment  between  England  and 
the  colonies.  He  was  an  untiring  enemy  of  compromise,  and 
he  wrote  perhaps  more — though  he  signed  his  name  to  very 
little  of  what  he  published — than  any  other  of  the  early 
agitators.  He  prepared  many  reports,  memorials,  articles 
for  the  press,  and  state  papers,  all  of  which  show  his  clear 


52  History  of  American  Literature 

and  convincing  style  as  a  controversial  writer.  He  directed 
the  work  of  the  Committee  of  Correspondence  for  Massa 
chusetts,  and  became  so  vigorously  aggressive  in  his  opposi 
tion  to  England  that  he  was  not  included  in  the  general 
pardon  which  that  country  declared  in  1775,  a  fact  of  which 
he  was  exceedingly  proud.  Samuel  Adams  was  a  skilful 
politician,  a  successful  party  manipulator,  and  a  powerful 
political  journalist,  and  he  has  been  adjudged  by 
historians  to  be  the  most  influential  of  the  Revolutionary 
agitators. 

John  Adams.  John  Adams  (1735-1826),  the  cousin  of 
Samuel  Adams,  was  perhaps  a  more  profound  thinker  and 
a  more  careful  writer  than  his  kinsman,  and  he  eventually 
received  higher  political  regard,  being  elected  president  in 
1796  to  succeed  Washington;  but  his  popular  influence  was 
not  nearly  so  great  as  that  of  the  elder  Adams.  He  was  what 
we  may  call  a  constitutional  lawyer,  basing  his  orations  and 
pamphlets  on  the  profound  underlying  principles  of  govern 
ment  rather  than  upon  the  principle  of  expediency  and  popu 
lar  appeal.  Though  his  writings  command  respect  and 
admiration,  the  strong  legal  and  logical  bent  of  his  mind 
robs  them  of  much  of  that  human  element  which  is  essential 
to  literature. 

Tory  pamphleteers.  It  must  not  be  assumed  that  all  the 
good  controversial  writing  was  on  one  side  of  the  questions 
at  issue.  There  were  some  excellent  loyalist  pamphleteers, 
among  them  being  Samuel  Seabury  (1729-1796),  an  Epis 
copal  minister,  later  consecrated  in  Connecticut  as  the  first 
bishop  of  the  American  Episcopal  Church,  the  author  of 
a  number  of  attractive  letters  written  under  the  pen-name 
of  "A  Westchester  Farmer";  Joseph  Galloway  (1729-1803), 
a  native  of  Maryland  who  moved  to  Philadelphia  to  practice 
law  and  there  wrote  a  conservative  pamphlet  under  the  title 
of  "Examination  of  the  Mutual  Claims  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  Colonies";  and  Daniel  Leonard  (1740-1829),  a  graduate 


The  Revolutionary  Period  53 

of  Harvard  College  and  a  Boston  lawyer,  author  of  strong 
loyalist  newspaper  articles  signed  "Massachusettsensis.  " 

John  Dickinson.  Along  with  these  writers,  though  not 
of  them,  should  be  mentioned  John  Dickinson  (1732-1808), 
of  Philadelphia,  author  of  many  excellent  conservative 
articles  and  pamphlets.  The  best  known  of  his  writings  is 
a  series  of  newspaper  articles  called  "Letters  from  a  Penn 
sylvania  Farmer  to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  British  Colonies" 
(1767-68).  In  these  articles  he  tried  to  show  the  merits  of 
both  sides  of  the  controversy  and  thus  lead  to  a  friendly 
settlement  of  the  difficulties  confronting  the  people.  Pro 
fessor  Tyler  says,  "No  other  serious  political  essays  of  the 
Revolution  equaled  the  '  Farmer's  Letters '  in  literary  merit, 
including  in  that  term  the  merit  of  substance  as  well  as  of 
form."1  These  letters  were  published  in  practically  all  of  the 
newspapers  of  the  colonies  and  attracted  a  great  deal  of 
attention ;  they  were  also  widely  circulated  in  Europe,  where 
they  received  serious  consideration.  When  the  war  broke 
out,  Dickinson  became  a  staunch  supporter  of  the  colonial 
cause.  He  was  also  the  author  of  the  commonplace  but  at 
one  time  popular  "Song  for  American  Liberty." 

Alexander  Hamilton.  When  he  was  a  boy  of  seventeen 
studying  at  King's  College  (now  Columbia  University)  in 
New  York  City,  Alexander  Hamilton  (1757-1804)  began  his 
career  as  a  political  writer  by  his  successful  answers  to  the 
letters  of  "A  West  Chester  Farmer"2  in  a  series  called  "The 
Farmer  Refuted."  Hamilton  was  born  in  the  West  Indies 
and  was  at  an  early  age  thrown  on  his  own  resources.  He 
entered  business,  but  he  showed  such  precocious  literary 
abilities  that  he  was  urged  by  admiring  friends  to  go  to  New 
York  to  seek  an  education.  He  entered  heartily  into  the 
pre-Revolutionary  agitation  as  orator,,  pamphleteer,  and 

1  Moses    Coit    Tyler,  Literary  History  of  the  American  Revolution,  1763- 
1783,  Vol.  I,  p.  236. 

2  See  above  "Tory  Pamphleteers." 


54  History  of  American  Literature 

statesman,  and  later  became  a  powerful  force  in  the  forma 
tion  and  adoption  of  the  Constitution  and  in  the  actual 
management  of  the  government  in  the  various  important 
public  offices  which  he  held. 

"The  Federalist."  The  greatest  service  that  Hamilton 
rendered  to  the  new  government  was  through  a  series  of 
papers  planned  by  him  and  written  largely  by  him  and  James 
Madison,  and  .now  known  as  The  Federalist.  It  was  in 
1787-88  that  these  papers  first  appeared  in  newspapers,  but 
they  were  afterward  collected  into  a  volume,  and  this  contro 
versial  document,  written  to  explain  and  defend  the  new 
constitution,  has  become  an  authoritative  statement  of 
the  nature  and  principles  of  constitutional  government. 
The  style  of  the  work  is  restrained  and  dignified,  striking  in 
its  simplicity  and  directness,  and  overwhelmingly  convincing 
in  its  clearness  and  logical  force.  So  uniform  and  decisive 
is  the  style  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine  the  authorship 
of  the  letters  without  direct  outside  information.  John  Jay 
wrote  a  few  numbers,  but  to  Hamilton  and  Madison  belongs 
the  credit  of  composing  the  great  majority  of  the  papers; 
and  to  Hamilton  must  be  given  the  greater  praise,  because 
he  conceived  the  plan  and  wrote  the  first,  and  at  least  three- 
fifths  of  the  whole  number,  of  the  papers. 

Thomas  Jefferson.  Upon  Thomas  Jefferson's  tomb  at 
Monticello,  his  home  near  Charlottesville,  Virginia,  are 
inscribed  the  following  words,  composed  by  himself : 

HERE   LIES    BURIED 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON 

AUTHOR   OF   THE   DECLARATION   OF   INDEPENDENCE, 

OF    THE    STATUTE    OF    VIRGINIA   FOR    RELIGIOUS    FREEDOM, 

AND   FATHER   OF   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   VIRGINIA. 

These  three  items  may  be  summarized  in  the  single  idea 
of  human  liberty;  for  the  first  represents  political  liberty, 
the  second  religious  liberty,  and  the  third  intellectual 


ALEXANDER  HAMILTON 


56  History  of  American  Literature 

liberty.  Jefferson  (1743-1826),  was  not  primarily  or 
intentionally  an  author  in  the  restricted  sense  of  that  term, 
but  he  was  well  prepared  to  become  one  both  by  temper 
ament  and  by  training.  In  another  age  and  country  he 
might  have  become  a  great  romantic  writer  as  easily 
as  he  did  become  a  great  idealist  in  politics  in  the  age 
and  land  in  which  he  happened  to  live.  Born  in  Albermarle 
County  in  1743  and  educated  in  the  best  schools  of 
his  day  under  the  classical  ideals,  he  naturally  turned 
to  politics  as  a  ca'reer  in  the  tumultuous  times  when 
the  colonies  were  arrayed  against  foreign  domination  in 
the  conduct  of  their  local  governments.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Virginia  House  of  Burgesses  in  1769,  and  from  this 
time  on  to  the  end  of  his  life  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
service  of  his  country  in  one  way  or  another.  It  is  useless 
to  review  his  public  career,  for  the  main  items  are  known  to 
all  who  read  the  elemental  facts  of  our  national  history. 
It  is  to  his  writings  and  cultural  interests  that  we  must 
devote  our  attention. 

Jefferson's  state  papers:  "The  Declaration  of  Independence." 
The  first  important  state  paper  of  Jefferson's  which  had  any 
direct  influence  on  the  course  of  events  .was  his  "Instructions 
to  the  Virginia  Delegates  to  the  Congress  of  1774."  This 
was  reprinted  and  sent  abroad  under  the  title  "A  Summary 
View  of  the  Rights  of  America,"  and  it  is  said  that  in  this 
form  it  suggested  to  Edmund  Burke  some  of  the  arguments 
he  used  in  his  great  speech  on  "Conciliation  with  the  Ameri 
can  Colonies."  The  two  other  state  papers  by  Jefferson 
which  should  not  be  omitted  from  any  survey  of  our  political 
classics  are  "The  Declaration  of  Independence,"  composed 
in  1776,  and  the  "First  Inaugural  Address,"  delivered  in 
1 80 1  when  he  became  third  president  of  the  United  States. 
The  last  of  these  is  a  fine  example  of  the  formal  political 
address,  but  it  is  to  the  first  that  we  must  give  especial 
notice.  The  fact  that  Jefferson,  one  of  the  youngest 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON 


58  History  of  American  Literature 

men  in  the  convention,  should  have  been  selected  to  draft 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  is  sufficient  proof  of  the 
confidence  which  his  contemporaries  had  in  his  literary 
abilities,  and  his  success  in  the  task  is  attested  by  the  uni 
versal  esteem  in  which  that  document  is  still  held,  not  only 
for  its  historical  value  as  a  landmark  in  the  establishment  of 
our  nation,  but  for  its  excellent  literary  form.  Jefferson 
succeeded  in  crystalizing  in  this  great  state  paper  the 
thought  and  emotion  of  a  whole  people,  and  at  the  same  time 
he  put  the  stamp  of  his  own  personality  upon  the  instrument. 
The  phraseology  of  the  Declaration  is,  of  course,  partially 
borrowed  from  similar  earlier  declarations  or  bills  of  rights, 
and  it  is  well  known  that  there  were  numerous  changes  and 
corrections  made  when  the  paper  was  subjected  to  the  revi 
sion  of  the  convention.  But  the  genius  and  spirit  of  the 
whole,  the  literary  form  and  the  passion  which  underlie  it, 
belong  to  Jefferson,  and  to  him  we  may  unhesitatingly 
ascribe  the  authorship  of  the  noblest  political  classic  of  our 
nation.  The  style  is  dignified  and  resonant  and  unmis 
takably  clear  and  decisive,  but  at  times  somewhat  stilted 
in  its  diction,  and  somewhat  formal  in  its  excessive  paral 
lelism.  The  sonorous  roll  of  the  opening  sentence  illustrates 
the  quality  of  the  style  at  its  best. 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one 
people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,  and  to  assume  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that 
they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

His  "Notes"  on  Virginia  and  his  "Autobiography."  Most 
of  the  material  in  the  ten  large  volumes  of  Jefferson's  col 
lected  works  consists  of  letters  and  state  papers.  There  are 
several  works,  however,  which  rise  to  the  importance  of 
formal  volumes.  The  Notes  on  Virginia  (1784),  prepared 


The  Revolutionary  Period  59 

in  response  to  a  request  from  the  French  government,  is 
perhaps  Jefferson's  most  ambitious  book.  It  is  carefully 
written  and  is  full  of  interesting  facts,  figures,  and  descrip 
tions  of  the  country  and  the  customs  of  those  early  days, 
but  it  is  not  to  be  classed  as  literature  in  the  restricted 
sense.  Jefferson's  Autobiography,  too,  written  after  he  had 
retired  from  active  public  life  and  was  devoting  himself  to 
his  estate,  "Monticello,"  and  to  fostering  the  growth  of  the 
University  of  Virginia  at  Charlottes ville,  is  chiefly  valuable 
as  a  storehouse  of  information  concerning  the  public  events 
in  which  the  great  commoner  took  part.  But  even  if  Jeffer 
son's  work  as  a  whole  is  not  primarily  literary,  there  is  in 
his  personality  a  certain  cultural  richness  which  lends 
importance  to  him  as  a  literary  figure.  He  wrote  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  grammar;  he  was  a  great  reader;  he  was  interested 
in  music  and  painting;  and  he  was  especially  devoted  to 
architecture,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  charming  beauty  of  his 
own  home  and  by  the  elaborate  drawings  which  he  prepared 
in  his  scheme  for  the  buildings  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 
In  fact,  it  is  largely  due  to  the  idealism  and  culture  of  its 
aspiring  and  art-loving  patron  that  this  university  today 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  a  unique  cultural  atmosphere. 

George  Washington:  "The  Farewell  Address."  George 
Washington  (1732-1799)  was  more  of  a  soldier  and  a  states 
man  than  a  writer  or  orator,  but  on  certain  impressive 
occasions  in  his  life  he  delivered  addresses  which  rise  to  the 
plane  of  noble  political  literature.  The  first  of  these  public 
utterances  which  should  be  remembered  is  his  brief  "Address 
Delivered  upon  Surrendering  to  Congress  his  Commission 
as  Commander  in  Chief  of  the  Revolutionary  Army"  (1783) ; 
and  another  is  the  universally  esteemed  "Farewell  Address 
to  the  American  People"  (1796).  The  last  is  in  reality  a 
state  paper  in  the  form  of  a  dignified  personal  address  by 
the  great  president  to  his  friends  and  fellow-citizens.  It 
comes  as  a  fitting  climax  to  Washington's  public  career.  At 


60  History  of  American  Literature 

the  end  of  his  first  term  as  president  (1792)  he  asked  James 
Madison  to  prepare  for  him  a  draft  of  a  farewell  address  to 
the  people,  but  when  he  accepted  the  nomination  for  a 
second  term  he  put  off  the  final  preparation  of  the  address 
until  1796.  He  then  called  Alexander  Hamilton  into  con 
sultation  and  prepared  the  great  "Farewell  Address."  It 
is  customary  for  our  chief  executives  to  get  advice  and 
suggestions  from  their  cabinet  officers  in  the  preparation 
of  practically  all  important  state  papers;  hence  there  is 
no  reason  for  depriving  Washington  of  due  credit  for  the 
composition  of  the  "Farewell  Address. "  The  quiet  dignity, 
lofty  ideals,  and  inherent  modesty  of  expression  in  the  docu 
ment  are  characteristic  of  the  great  personality  who  signed 
it.  In  the  "Farewell  Address"  Washington  strongly  advo 
cated  the  doctrine  of  the  isolation  of  the  American  republic 
from  European  politics.  In  particular  he  warned  the 
young  nation  to  avoid  permanent  alliances1  with  European 
governments.  It  is  worth  while  to  note,  in  passing,  that 
we  have  entirely  outgrown  this  policy,  as  is  clearly  evidenced 
by  the  prominent  part  America  has  played  in  the  great 
World  War  and  the  events  which  followed  it. 

Thomas  Paine:  "Common  Sense"  and  "The  Crisis." 
Among  the  essayists  and  journalists  who  took  part  in  the 
agitation  for  American  independence,  Thomas  Paine  (1737— 
1809)  deserves  to  be  remembered  as  one  of  the  most  influen 
tial  and,  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  one  of  the  best.  A 
native  of  England,  in  1774  he  came  to  America  near  middle 
life,  bearing  a  letter  of  recommendation  from  Benjamin 
Franklin.  He  secured  journalistic  employment  in  Phila 
delphia  and  at  once  plunged  into  the  agitation  for  complete 
independence  by  writing  his  powerful  pamphlet  called 
"Common  Sense"  (1776).  Tyler  designates  it  "the  first 


iNot  entangling  alliances.  Thomas  Jefferson,  in  his  "First  Inaugural 
Address,"  reiterated  this  doctrine  in  the  familiar  phrase,  "peace,  commerce, 
and  honest  friendship  with  all  nations,  entangling  alliances  with  none." 


^Z^Cc^v^^e^^, 
&          ' — S 


62  History  of  American  Literature 

open  and  unqualified  argument  in  championship  of  the 
doctrine  of  American  independence."  It  took  the  public 
by  storm.  Every  one  was  asking  who  could  be  the  author 
of  this  impressive  and  bold  pamphlet.  Some  attributed  it 
to  Samuel  Adams  and  some  to  Benjamin  Franklin.  Paine 
kept  his  identity  concealed,  for  it  might  have  cost  him  his 
life  to  have  acknowledged  the  authorship  of  this  bold  appeal 
to  the  colonists.  He  accepted  employment  in  some  clerical 
capacity  in  the  army,  and  in  this  connection,  soon  after  the 
appearance  of  his  first  pamphlet,  he  projected  a  series  of 
articles  under  the  general  title  of  "The  Crisis,"  the  numbers 
to  appear  whenever  he  could  bring  them  out.  The  first 
number,  published  in  1776,  opened  with  the  now  familiar 
sentence,  "These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls."  The 
first  paragraph,  a  passage  worth  repeating  in  any  period  of 
national  crisis,  reads  as  follows: 

These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls.  The  summer  soldier  and 
the  sunshine  patriot  will,  in  this  crisis,  shrink  from  the  service  of  his 
country;  but  he  that  stands  it  now,  deserves  the  love  and  thanks  of 
man  and  woman.  Tyranny,  like  hell,  is  not  easily  conquered,  yet  we 
have  this  consolation  with  us,  that  the  harder  the  conflict,  the  more 
glorious  the  triumph.  What  we  obtain  too  cheap,  we  esteem  too 
lightly:  it  is  dearness  only  that  gives  everything  its  value.  Heaven 
knows  how  to  put  a  proper  price  upon  its  goods;  and  it  would  be 
strange  indeed,  if  so  celestial  an  article  as  freedom  should  not  be 
highly  rated. 

This  is  good,  strong  prose.  The  steady  flow  of  the  language 
and  the  nervous  energy  of  the  thought  give  the  style  a 
vitality  and  piquancy  that  make  it  at  once  attractive  and 
convincing.  There  is  no  subtlety,  no  subterfuge,  but  a 
frank  and  direct,  if  somewhat  rhetorical,  appeal  to  the 
common  sense  of  all  readers.  There  is  no  doubt  that  at  the 
critical  time  when  they  were  put  forth,  Paine 's  pamphlets, 
as  Washington  himself  acknowledged,  were  of  great  value 
in  nerving  the  patriots  to  fight  on  against  the  terrible 


The  Revolutionary  Period  63 

odds  which  confronted  them.  There  were  sixteen  numbers 
of  "The  Crisis"  from  1776  to  1783,  and  together  they  make 
up  a  valuable  contribution  to  our  political  literature. 

Fame's  later  works:  "  The  Rights  of  Man"  and  "  The  Age 
of  Reason."  In  his  later  life  Paine  lost  much  of  the  prestige 
which  his  Revolutionary  pamphlets  had  won  for  him  in  this 
country.  He  went  to  England  and  published  a  sharp  reply 
to  Burke's  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution,  calling  it 
The  Rights  of  Man  (1791).  Then  he  slipped  away  to  France, 
as  if  to  avoid  the  storm  which  the  publication  of  his  reply 
raised  in  England.  In  France  he  mingled  freely  with  the 
revolutionists  in  the  terrible  days  of  bloodshed  and  destruc 
tion,  and  was  himself  imprisoned  and  sentenced  to  be 
executed.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  The  Age  of  Reason 
(1794),  an  attack  on  the  Bible  and  the  Christian  religion, 
and  thus  brought  on  himself  the  opprobrium  which  has 
followed  him  to  this  day.  After  his  release  from  prison  he 
returned  to  America,  where  he  died  in  1809.  Unfortunately 
Paine  is  more  frequently  referred  to  as  an  enemy  of  Christi 
anity  than  as  a  patriot.  He  was  undoubtedly  a  sincere 
lover  of  liberty,  and  we  should  give  him  full  credit  for  the 
bold  fight  he  made  for  our  own  independence  and  for  human 
rights  in  general. 

St.  John  de  Crevecoeur.  One  more  prose  work  deserves 
mention  here  —  namely,  "The  Letters  from  an  American 
Farmer"  (1782)  by  Hector  St.  John  de  Crevecoeur  (1731— 
1813).  Born  of  a  noble  family  in  Normandy,  Crevecoeur 
was  educated  in  England  from  his  sixteenth  to  his  twenty- 
third  year,  when  he  removed  to  America  to  engage  in  farm 
ing  in  New  England  and  later  in  Pennsylvania.  His 
"Letters  from  an  American  Farmer"  represents  an  entirely 
different  type  of  prose  from  the  pamphlets  we  have  been 
considering.  Crevecoeur  had  no  special  plea  to  make  either 
for  religious  or  political  liberty  or  to  encourage  immigrants 
to  the  colonies.  What  he  attempted  to  do  was  to  give  a 


64  History  of  American  Literature 

pleasing  literary  portrayal  of  rural  life  and  scenes  in  America. 
There  is  an  idyllic  simplicity  and  charm  in  his  treatment  of 
the  natural  beauties  of  American  scenery  and  of  the  simple 
pastoral  life  of  the  American  farmer.  His  interpretation  is 
that  of  a  pleased  and  interested  observer  rather  than  that 
of  an  advocate  or  partisan.  From  an  esthetic  and  literary 
point  of  view  Crevecoeur's  book  is  superior  to  any  other 
prose  volume  of  its  kind  written  in  America  during  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  these  more  stirring  years  of  the 
twentieth  century  we  may  read  with  peculiar  interest 
Crevecoeur's  definition  of  an  American  and  his  prophecy 
of  the  future  greatness  of  the  American  people. 

What,  then,  is  the  American,  this  new  man?  He  is  neither  an 
European,  nor  the  descendent  of  an  European:  hence  that  strange 
mixture  of  blood,  which  you  will  find  in  no  other  country.  I  could 
point  out  to  you  a  family  whose  grandfather  was  an  Englishman, 
whose  wife  was  Dutch,  whose  son  married  a  French  woman,  and  whose 
present  four  sons  have  now  four  wives  of  different  nations.  He  is  an 
American,  who,  leaving  behind  him  all  his  ancient  prejudices  and 
manners,  receives  new  ones  from  the  new  mode  of  life  he  has  embraced, 
the  new  government  he  obeys,  and  the  new  rank  he  holds.  He  becomes 
an  American  by  being  received  in  the  broad  lap  of  our  great  "alma 
mater."  Here  individuals  of  all  nations  are  melted  into  a  new  race  of 
men,1  whose  labors  and  posterity  will  one  day  cause  great  changes  in 
the  world.  Americans  are  the  western  pilgrims,  who  are  carrying 
along  with  them  that  great  mass  of  arts,  sciences,  vigor,  and  industry, 
which  began  long  since  in  the  east.  They  will  finish  the  great  circle. 
The  Americans  were  once  scattered  all  over  Europe.  Here  they  are 
incorporated  into  one  of  the  finest  systems  of  population  which  has 
ever  appeared,  and  which  will  hereafter  become  distinct  by  the  power 
of  the  different  climates  they  inhabit.  The  American  ought  therefore  to 
love  his  country  much  better  than  that  wherein  either  he  or  his  fore 
fathers  were  born.  Here  the  rewards  of  his  industry  follow,  with  equal 
steps,  the  progress  of  his  labor.  His  labor  is  founded  on  the  basis  of 
nature — self-interest:  Can  it  want  a  stronger  allurement?  Wives  and 
children,  who  before  in  vain  demanded  of  him  a  morsel  of  bread,  now, 


1This  is  doubtless  the  first  use  of  the  familiar  metaphor  of  America  as 
the  melting-pot  of  the  nations. 


INDEPENDENCE  HALL  AS   SEEN  FROM  INDEPENDENCE  SQUARE 


66  History  of  American  Literature 

fat  and  frolicsome,  gladly  help  their  father  to  clear  those  fields 
whence  exuberant  crops  are  to  arise,  to  feed  and  to  clothe  them  all, 
without  any  part  being  claimed  either  by  a  despotic  prince,  a  rich 
abbot,  or  a  mighty  lord.  Here  religion  demands  but  little  of  him, — 
a  small  voluntary  salary  to  the  minister,  and  gratitude  to  God:  can 
he  refuse  these?  The  American  is  a  new  man,  who  acts  upon  new 
principles;  he  must  therefore  entertain  new  ideas,  and  form  new  opin 
ions.  From  involuntary  idleness,  servile  dependence,  penury,  and 
useless  labor,  he  has  passed  to  toils  of  a  very  different  nature,  rewarded 
by  ample  subsistence.  This  is  an  American. 


THE  POETRY 

Revolutionary  ballads.  The  poetry  of  the  Revolutionary 
period  seldom  rises  above  mediocrity.  There  were  a  number 
of  ballads  and  patriotic  songs  which  were  popular  in  their 
day,  and  served  well  their  purpose  of  amusing  and  cheering 
our  ancestors,  but  hardly  one  of  them  is  worthy  of  a  perma 
nent  place  in  our  literature.  "The  Song  of  American 
Liberty"  by  John  Dickinson  has  already  been  mentioned. 
"Yankee  Doodle,"  or  "The  Yankee's  Return  from  Camp,'" 
originally  written  by  Edward  Bangs,  a  Harvard  student, 
had  a  typical  experience  in  its  transitions,  being  sung 
in  several  varied  versions  to  the  delight  of  citizens  and  sol 
diers  during  the  hard  struggle  for  independence.  As  a  tune 
and  as  a  popular  ballad  it  still  retains  its  hold  on  the  public. 
The  ballad,  to  which  many  additional  stanzas  have  been 
added  from  time  to  time,  begins  as  follows: 

Father  and  I  went  down  to  camp 

Along  with  Captain  Gooding 
And  there  we  see  the  men  and  boys 

As  thick  as  hasty  pudding. 

(CHOfcus) 
Yankee  Doodle,  keep  it  up, 

Yankee  Doodle,  dandy, 
Mind  the  music  and  the  step, 

And  with  the  girls  be  handy. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  67 

Another  typical  ballad  in  the  meter  of  "Yankee  Doodle," 
literally  bubbling  over  with  satisfaction  and  delight  at  the 
discomfiture  of  the  British  general,  the  Earl  of  Cornwallis, 
is  called  "The  Dance,"  and  begins, 

Cornwallis  led  a  country  dance, 

The  like  was  never  seen,  sir, 
Much  retrograde  and  much  advance, 

And  all  with  General  Greene,  sir. 

They  rambled  up  and  rambled  down, 
Joined  hands  and  off  they  run,  sir, 

Our  General  Greene  to  Charlesfown, 
The  earl  to  Wilmington,  sir. 

The  ballad  of  "Nathan  Hale,"  or  "Hale  in  the  Bush,"  is  a 
sort  of  refined  or  dressed  up  literary  ballad,  more  dignified 
and  self-conscious,  hence  less  truly  a  popular  ballad.  It 
relates  in  a  remarkably  stimulating  strain  the  capture  and 
execution  of  the  Revolutionary  hero  named  in  the  title. 

The  breezes  went  steadily  through  the  tall  pines, 
A-saying  "oh!  hu-ush!"  a-saying  "oh!  hu-ush!" 

As  stilly  stole  by  a  bold  legion  of  horse, 
For  Hale  in  the  bush,  for  Hale  in  the  bush. 

"Keep  still!"  said  the  thrush  as  she  nestled  her  young, 
In  a  nest  by  the  road;  in  a  nest  by  the  road. 

"For  the  tyrants  are  near,  and  with  them  appear 
What  bodes  us  no  good,  what  bodes  us  no  good."1 

Francis  Hopkinson:  "The  Battle  of  the  Kegs."  Francis 
Hopkinson  (1737-1791)  of  Philadelphia,  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  from  New  Jersey  and  holder 
of  important  political  offices  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania, 
among  them  -the  United  States  district  judgeship  for  Penn 
sylvania,  was  the  author  of  numerous  satiric  trifles  and 
extended  political  allegories  which  brought  him  wide  popu 
larity.  His  satirical  ballad,  "The  Battle  of  the  Kegs," 

*For  excellent  complete  selections  of  this  type  of  popular  verse,  see 
Boynton's  American  Poetry  or  Cairns's  Early  American  Writers. 


68  History  of  American  Literature 

is  still  delightful  reading.  It  was  written  to  satirize  the 
British  troops  who,  wher>  they  discovered  certain  "infernal 
machines"  in  the  form  of  kegs  sent  down  the  river  by  the 
patriots  to  annoy  the  British  ships  at  Philadelphia,  bravely 
began  to  fire  on  every  floating  object  they  saw  in  the  river. 

The  cannons  roar  from  shore  to  shore; 

The  small-arms  make  a  rattle, 
Since  wars  began,  I'm  sure  no  man 

E'er  saw  so  strange  a  battle 

The  kegs,  'tis  said,  tho'  strongly  made 

Of  rebel  staves  and  hoops,  Sir, 
Could  not  oppose  their  pow'rful  foes, 

The  conq'ering  British  troops,  Sir. 

From  morn  to  night  these  men  of  might 

Display 'd  amazing  courage; 
And  when  the  sun  was  fairly  down, 

Retir'd  to  sup  their  porrage  .... 

Such  feats  did  they  perform  that  day 

Against  these  wicked  kegs,  Sir, 
That  years  to  come,  if  they  get  home, 

They'll  make  their  boast  and  brags,  Sir. 

His  prose.  Two  of  Judge  Hopkinson's  political  allegories 
in  prose  were  decidedly  amusing  to  his  contemporaries,  and 
though  they  are  rarely  read  today,  they  were  of  considerable 
importance  in  the  development  of  American  prose.  ''The 
Pretty  Story"  deals  with  the  conflict  between  England,  "the 
old  farm,"  and  America,  "the  new  farm,"  and  their  "wives," 
the  English  Parliament  and  the  colonial  governments 
respectively.  "The  New  Roof"  is  a  presentation  of  the 
new  form  of  government  under  the  federal  Constitution. 
Francis  Hopkinson's  son,  Joseph  Hopkinson  (1770-1842), 
wrote  in  1798  the  words  and  music  of  the  well-known 
patriotic  song  "Hail,  Columbia." 

The  Hartford  Wits.  A  school  of  writers  with  a  more  or 
less  well-defined  literary  purpose  sprang  up  in  Connecticut 


The  Revolutionary  Period  69 

during  the  Revolution.  There  were  ten  or  a  dozen  ambitious 
young  college  men,  well  versed  in  the  classics  and  in  the 
literary  methods  of  the  English  writers  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  particularly  those  of  Pope  and  Samuel  Butler. 
They  wrote  political  satires,  long  allegories  and  epics,  and 
some  religious  poetry,  and  tried  in  a  sort  of  concerted  way 
to  establish  a  standard  of  formal  literature  in  America 
similar  to  the  classical  school  in  England.  Most  of  these 
young  literary  aspirants  were  Yale  men.  Hartford  rather 
than  New  Haven  was  the  chief  center  of  their  later  activi 
ties,  and  so  they  came  to  be  known  as  the  "Hartford 
Wits."  Only  three  of  them  need  demand  our  attention 
here  —  John  Trumbull,  Timothy  Dwight,  and.  Joel  Barlow. 
John  Trumbull.  John  Trumbull  (1750-1831)  was  the 
most  popular  and  probably  the  most  gifted  of  these  three 
Hartford  Wits.  He  was  born  in  Connecticut  in  1750.  He 
showed  remarkable  precocity,  learning  to  read  before  he 
was  three  years  old,  completing  the  Bible  at  the  age  of 
four,  and  learning  many  of  Watts's  hymns  and  composing 
similar  verses  himself  even  before  he  had  learned  to  write. 
When  his  father  was  tutoring  a  lad  of  seventeen  who  was 
preparing  to  enter  Yale  College,  the  boy  of  seven,  loitering 
about  the  room,  showed  more  proficiency  in  his  ability  to 
read  and  construe  Latin  than  did  the  youth  of  seventeen. 
He  was  allowed  to  take  the  lessons  regularly  thereafter, 
and  he  passed  the  entrance  examinations  at  Yale  with 
apparent  ease  at  this  early  age.  He  did  not  enter  college 
until  he  was  thirteen,  however,  spending  the  intervening 
years  in  doing  a  considerable  amount  of  reading  in  the 
classics.  He  graduated  at  Yale  when  he  was  seventeen, 
and  then  spent  three  years  more  in  general  reading  and  study, 
taking  his  master's  degree  when  he  was  twenty.  During 
these  years  he  began  to  write  both  poetry  and  prose,  mostly 
in  imitation  of  the  eighteenth-century  English  writers. 
With  his  friend  Timothy  Dwight  he  contributed  essays  to 


70  History  of  American  Literature 

two  periodicals  in  imitation  of  Addison's  Spectator,  namely, 
The  Medler  and  The  Correspondent.  Shortly  after  gradua 
tion  Trumbull  became  a  tutor  at  Yale,  and  during  this 
period  he  wrote  a  long  satiric  poem  on  the  hollow  and 
impractical  type  of  education  then  offered,  especially  for 
ministers  and  women,  calling  his  production  The  Progress 
of  Dulness.  It  consisted  of  three  cantos,  the  first  on  "The 
Adventures  of  Tom  Brainless,"  the  second  on  "The  Life 
and  Character  of  Dick  Hairbrain,"  and  the  third  on  "The 
Adventures  of  Miss  Harriet  Simper."1 

"McFingal."  Trumbull's  most  famous  work,  "McFingal," 
was  begun  in  1776  but  not  completed  until  1782.  It  is  a 
burlesque  epic,  written  in  the  sing-song  octosyllabic  coup 
lets  which  the  English  writer  Samuel  Butler  had  so  success 
fully  employed  in  Hudibras,  his  satire  on  the  Puritans.  So 
accurate  was  the  imitation  that  several  of  Trumbull's 
couplets  have  been  quoted  as  Butler's,  especially  this  one: 

No  man  e'er  felt  the  halter  draw, 
With  good  opinion  of  the  law. 

McFingal  is  a  long-winded  Tory  constable,  or  squire,  who 
thinks  he  is  a  great  orator  and  a  great  power  in  colonial 
politics.  Trumbull  puts  some  extraordinarily  ridiculous  and 
blatant  speeches  into  the  pseudo-hero's  mouth,  and  finally 
makes  him  the  butt  of  the  patriots'  humorous  wrath.  In 
its  finished  form  McFingal  consists  of  four  cantos,  the  first 
two  being  devoted  to  the  "Town  Meeting,"  morning  and 
afternoon;  the  third,  to  "The  Liberty  Pole"  or  McFingal's 
attack  on  the  patriots'  flag  pole,  his  elevation  to  the  top  of 
it  by  a  rope  hooked  to  his  middle,  and  his  subsequent  tarring 
and  feathering;  the  fourth,  to  "The  Vision,"  or  McFingal's 
"second  sight"  in  a  dark  cellar,  in  which  he  is  forewarned 
of  all  the  defeats  and  disasters  which  were  to  befall  the 


iProfessor  Boynton  suggests  that  the  names  represent  three  types  of 
young  people  —  Tom,  Dick,  and  Harry, —  the  last  becoming  "Harriet"  to 
fit  the  coquette.  (American  Poetry,  page  608.) 


THE    ELEVATION    OF 


Reproduced  from  the  engraving  by  E.  Tisdale. 
McFINGAL    ON    THE    LIBERTY    POLE 


"You'll  rue  this  inauspicious  morn 
And  curse  the  day  you  e'er  were  born." 


The  Revolutionary  Period  7 1 

Tories  during  the  coming  years.  Fortunately  for  the  accu 
racy  of  this  so-called  "vision,"  Trumbull  waited  until  after 
the  defeat  of  Cornwallis  in  1782  to  write  this  canto,  thus 
learning  the  actual  sequence  of  events  before  making  his 
prophecies. 

Nature  of  the  satire.  The  poem  is  full  of  classical  and 
historical  lore  and  contains  many  allusions  now  unintelligible 
except  with  the  help  of  the  footnotes.  Particularly  effective 
are  the  burlesque  imitations  of  and  allusions  to  the  great 
world  epics,  such  as  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer,  the 
Aeneidof.  Vergil,  and  the  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise  Regained 
of  Milton.  The  following  passage  from  the  third  canto, 
describing  McFingal's  capture  and  elevation  on  the  liberty 
pole,  will  illustrate  the  mock-epic  style  and  the  broad  humor 
of  the  famous  old  political  satire  which  so  greatly  amused 
our  Revolutionary  sires. 

Swift  turn'd  M'Fingal  at  the  view, 
And  call'd  to  aid  th'  attendant  crew, 
In  vain;  the  Tories  all  had  run, 
When  scarce  the  fight  was  well  begun; 
Their  setting  wigs  he  saw  decreas'd 
Far  in  th'  horizon  tow'rd  the  west 
Amazed  he  view'd  the  shameful  sight, 
And  saw  no  refuge,  but  in  flight: 
But  age  unwieldy  check'd  his  pace, 
Though  fear  had  wing'd  his  flying  race; 
For  not  a  trifling  prize  at  stake; 
No  less  than  great  M'Fingal's  back. 
With  legs  and  arms  he  work'd  his  course, 
Like  rider  that  outgoes  his  horse, 
And  labor'd  hard  to  get  away,  as 
Old  Satan  struggling  on  through  chaos; 
'Till  looking  back,  he  spied  in  rear 
The  spade-arm'd  chief  advanced  too  near: 
Then  stopp'd  and  seized  a  stone,  that  lay 
An  ancient  landmark  near  the  way; 
Nor  shall  we  as  old  Bards  have  done, 
Affirm  it  weigh'd  an  hundred  ton: 


72  History  of  American  Literature 

But  such  a  stone,  as  at  a  shift 

A  modern  might  suffice  to  lift, 

Since  men,  to  credit  their  enigmas, 

Are  dwindled  down  to  dwarfs  and  pigmies. 

And  giants  exiled  with  their  cronies 

To  Brobdignags  and  Patagonias. 

But  while  our  Hero  turn'd  him  round, 

And  tugg'd  to  raise  it  from  the  ground, 

The  fatal  spade  discharged  a  blow 

Tremendous  on  his  rear  below : 

His  bent  knee  fail'd,  and  void  of  strength, 

Stretch'd  on  the  ground  his  manly  length. 

Like  ancient  oak  o'erturn'd,  he  lay, 

Or  tower  to  tempests  fall'n  a  prey, 

Or  mountain  sunk  with  all  his  pines, 

Or  flow'r  the  plow  to  dust  consigns, 

And  more  things  else — but  all  men  know  'em, 

If  slightly  versed  in  epic  poem. 

At  once  the  crew,  at  this  dread  crisis, 

Fall  on,  and  bind  him  ere  he  rises, 

And  with  loud  shouts  and  joyful  soul, 

Conduct  him  prisoner  to  the  pole. 

When  now  the  mob  in  lucky  hour 

Had  got  their  en'mies  in  their  power, 

They  first  proceed,  by  grave  command, 

To  take  the  Constable  in  hand. 

Then  from  the  pole's  sublimest  top 

The  active  crew  let  down  the  rope, 

At  once  its  other  end  in  haste  bind 

And  make  it  fast  upon  his  waistband; 

Till  like  the  earth,  as  stretch'd  on  tenter, 

He  hung  self-balanced  on  his  center. 

Then  upwards,  all  hands  hoisting  sail, 

They  swung  him,  like  a  keg  of  ale, 

Till  to  the  pinnacle  in  height 

He  vaulted,  like  balloon  or  kite. 

Timothy  Dwight.  Timothy  Dwight  (1752-1817),  another 
of  the  Hartford  Wits,  was  associated  with  Trumbull  in  his 
early  literary  efforts.  A  grandson  of  Jonathan  Edwards, 
Dwight  was  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1752;  was  educated 


The  Revolutionary  Period  73 

at  Yale,  where  he  was  for  a  time  a  tutor;  and  finally  became 
a  chaplain  in  the  Continental  Army.  At  the  end  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  he  became  the  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Greenfield  Hill,  Fairfield,  Connecticut,  and  from  1795  to 
his  death  in  1817  he  was  the  president  of  Yale  College.  He 
was  a  profuse  prose  writer,  committing  many  of  his  sermons, 
the  records  of  his  travels,  and  his  commonplace  observations 
on  contemporary  life  to  paper,  and  a  goodly  portion  of  them 
also  to  print.  He  was  an  ambitious  poet,  composing  a  long 
Biblical  epic  in  heroic  couplets,  The  Conquest  of  Canaan, 
and  another  long  poem  of  seven  parts  which  he  called 
Greenfield  Hill.  The  different  parts  of  this  last-named  work 
were  professedly  written  in  imitation  of  well  known  English 
poets,  such  as  Pope,  Butler,  Goldsmith,  and  others.  None 
of  Dwight's  poetry  is  read  today,  by  any  except  specialists, 
with  perhaps  a  single  exception  in  the  instance  of  the  patri 
otic  lyric,  "Columbia,"  which  was  highly  admired  during 
the  Revolution  and  has  since  been  frequently  reprinted 
in  lyric  and  patriotic  collections.  The  closing  stanza  will 
illustrate  the  somewhat  vaunting  rhetorical  style. 

Thus,  as  down  a  lone  valley,  with  cedars  o'erspread, 
From  war's  dread  confusion  I  pensively  strayed, 
The  gloom  from  the  face  of  fair  heav'n  retired; 
The  winds  ceased  to  murmur;  the  thunders  expired; 
Perfumes  as  of  Eden,  flowed  sweetly  along, 
And  a  voice,  as  of  angels,  enchantingly  sung: 
Columbia,  Columbia,  to  glory  arise, 
The  queen  of  the  world,  and  the  child  of  the  skies! 

Still  better  known,  because  it  has  been  preserved  in  our 
familiar  church  songs,  is  Dwight's  devotional  hymn,  "I 
Love  Thy  Kingdom,  Lord." 

Joel  Barlow.  Joel  Barlow  (1754-1812),  the  third  impor 
tant  member  of  the  Hartford  Wits,  was  born  in  Connecti 
cut,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1778,  and  before  the  end  of  the 
Revolution  became  a  chaplain  in  a  Massachusetts  brigade. 

6 


74  History  of  American  Literature 

He  engaged  in  several  business  enterprises  connected  with 
publication  and  book  selling,  compiling,  among  other  things, 
a  psalm  book  for  use  in  Congregational  churches.  He  began 
a  patriotic  epic  called  The  Vision  of  Columbus,  published 
it  in  1787,  and  twenty  years  later  expanded  it  into  the 
Columbiad  (1807),  a  poem  in  eleven  long  books  written  in 
heroic  couplets.  In  its  style  this  so-called  epic  is  more 
bombastic  and  rhetorical  than  sublime  or  inspired.  Pro 
fessor  Bronson  calls  it  "a  stage-coach  epic,  lumbering  and 
slow."  In  this  ambitious  effort,  which  he  innocently  com 
pared  with  the  epics  of  Homer,  Vergil,  and  Milton,  Barlow 
has  become  the  stock  example  of  an  author  who  overesti 
mates  his  strength  and  attempts  things  entirely  beyond  his 
compass.  In  his  later  years  Barlow  went  abroad  and 
engaged  in  pamphleteering  in  England  and  in  political 
intrigues  in  France.  He  was  appointed  to  several  diplo 
matic  posts,  finally  losing  his  life  in  the  famous  retreat  from 
Moscow,  where  he  had  gone  in  an  effort  to  reach  Napoleon 
and  present  his  credentials  as  a  representative  from  the 
United  States.  A  few  years  before  his  death  Barlow  was 
living  in  France,  and  in  Savoy  he  was  served  with  a  portion 
of  his  favorite  dish  made  from  American  maize,  or  Indian 
corn,  and  he  at  once  composed  "The  Hasty  Pudding,"  a 
long  mock-heroic  poem.  It  seems  that  he  could  write  the 
mock-epic  better  than  the  serious  epic,  for  by  the  irony  of 
fate,  this  playful  bit  of  fancy,  because  of  the  fact  that  it  is 
lighted  up  by  a  touch  of  the  comic,  is  today  far  better 
known  than  the  ponderous  epic  upon  which  Barlow  based 
his  hope  for  fame.  The  following  brief  quotation  from 
"The  Hasty  Pudding"  suggests  strongly  that  the  meter 
and  style  of  the  poem  are  closely  modeled  on  Gold 
smith's  "The  Traveller,"  though  the  mock-heroic  tone  is 
evident : 

Dear  Hasty  Pudding,  what  unpromised  joy 
Expands  my  heart  to  meet  thee  in  Savoy! 


The  Revolutionary  Period  75 

Doom'd  o'er  the  earth  through  devious  paths  to  roam, 
Each  clime  my  country  and  each  house  my  home, 
My  soul  is  soothed,  my  cares  have  found  an  end, 
I  greet  my  long-lost,  unforgotten  friend. 

Philip  Freneau :  his  early  life.  If  Yale  was  the  source  of 
the  most  notable  school  of  poets  during  the  Revolutionary 
period,  Princeton  deserves  the  credit  for  sending  forth  the 
one  poet  of  real  genius  whom  America  produced  before 
the  nineteenth  century — namely,  Philip  Freneau  (1752- 
1832).  Of  Huguenot  descent,  Freneau  was  born  in  New 
York  City,  but  at  an  early  age  he  was  taken  to  New 
Jersey,  and  he  is  therefore  usually  reckoned  among  the 
worthies  of  the  last-named  state.  He  was  educated  in  the 
schools  of  New  York  and  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey 
(Princeton),  where  he  was  graduated  with  distinction  in 
1771.  He  began  writing  poetry  while  he  was  in  college, 
composing  a  long  poem  in  heroic  couplets  on  "The  Prophet 
Jonah";  and  collaborating  with  his  classmate,  Hugh  Henry'' 
Brackenridge,  the  author  of  Modern  Chivalry,  he  composed 
a  patriotic  poem  called  "The  Rising  Glory  of  America," 
in  the  form  of  a  colloquy,  which  Brackenridge  delivered 
as  a  commencement  ode  at  their  graduation  exercises  at 
Princeton.  These  two  friends  with  two  other  classmates, 
William  Bradford  and  James  Madison,  were  intensely 
American  in  their  sympathies,  and  together  they  formed  a 
Whig  society  and  wrote  satires  against  the  Tories. 

Sailor,  editor,  and  poet.  Freneau  engaged  in  teaching 
for  some  time  after  his  graduation,  and  then  went  to  New 
York,  where  he  published  a  number  of  polemical  and  political 
essays  and  many  satires  against  the  Tories  and  patriotic 
poems  in  favor  of  American  liberty.  Being  of  an  advent 
urous  turn  of  mind,  he  determined  to  go  to  sea.  He  shipped 
for  Jamaica  and  soon  became  a  proficient  sailor.  He 
continued  to  write  poetry,  composing  several  long  poems 
on  subjects  suggested  by  his  travels,  as  for  example,  "The 


76  History  of  American  Literature 

Jamaica  Funeral"  and  "The  Beauties  of  Santa  Cruz." 
"The  House  of  Night,"  an  imaginative  poem  on  death,  is 
another  notable  production  which  belongs  to  this  period. 
Finally  he  was  captured  by  the  British  and  confined  for 
nearly  two  months  in  prison  ships,  an  experience  which 
inspired  one  of  his  most  graphic  and  savage  satires,  "The 
British  Prison  Ship," — 

These  Prison  Ships  where  pain  and  horror  dwell, 
Where  death  in  tenfold  vengeance  holds  his  reign, 
And  injur'd  ghosts,  yet  unaveng'd,  complain. 

After  his  release  he  returned  to  Mount  Pleasant,  the  family 
estate  near  Middletown  Point,  New  Jersey,  and  again  took 
up  editorial  work,  becoming  for  several  years  the  chief 
contributor  to  The  Freeman's  Journal  published  at  Phila 
delphia.  About  this  time  he  composed  some  of  his  best 
poems,  notably  the  lament1  for  the  patriots  who  fell  under 
General  Greene  at  Eutaw  Springs,  and  some  of  his  best 
sea  poems,  including  "Captain  Jones's  Invitation,"  "The 
Sea  Voyage,"  and  "The  Hurricane."  After  another  period 
of  adventurous  seafaring  as  captain  of  several  trading 
vessels,  about  1791  Freneau  returned  to  the  shore  to 
take  up  editorial  work  at  first  on  the  New  York  Daily 
Advertiser  and  shortly  afterwards  on  The  National  Gazette, 
a  journal  which  he  founded  in  Philadelphia.  He  naturally 
became  involved  in  the  bitter  political  discussions  of  the 
times,  taking  sides  with  Jefferson  and  against  Hamilton, 
and  later,  on  account  of  his  pro-French  sentiments  in 
connection  with  the  Genet  affair,  arousing  the  enmity  of 
Washington  himself.  Freneau  sought  relief  from  these 
political  turmoils  by  going  to  sea.  He  eventually  returned 
to  Mount  Pleasant  and  lived  on  through  the  War  of  1812 
and  the  two  following  decades,  finally  losing  his  life  in  a 
fierce  snowstorm  in  1832. 

HJsually  called  "Eutaw  Springs."     For  full  title  see  p.  78. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  77 

Freneau's  nature  lyrics.  Freneau's  most  purely  poetical 
work  is  a  number  of  really  excellent  nature  lyrics  and 
imaginative  poems.  Professor  Pattee1  speaks  eloquently  of 
the  evidences  of  early  romanticism  in  Freneau's  poetry, 
pointing  out  examples  of  early  romantic  influences  in  "The 
House  of  Night,"  "one  of  the  earliest  poems  in  that  dimly 
lighted  region  which  was  soon  to  be  exploited  by  Coleridge 
and  Poe";  in  his  sea  poems;  in  his  imaginative  treatment  of 
Indian  life,  as  in  his  "Indian  Death  Song"  and  "The  Indian 
Burying-Ground" ;  and  above  all  in  his  nature  lyrics,  which 
were  distinctly  in  the  Wordsworthian  vein,  as  "The  Dying 
Elm,"  "The  Sleep  of  Plants,"  "To  a  Honey  Bee,"  "To  a 
Caty-did,"  and  particularly  in  "The  Wild  Honeysuckle,"  a 
flawless  nature  lyric  written  in  1786,  at  least  a  dozen  years 
before  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge  published  the  Lyrical 
Ballads  (1798).  "The  Wild  Honeysuckle,"  his  one  almost 
perfect  art  lyric,  is  worthy  of  full  quotation  here. 

THE  WILD   HONEYSUCKLE 

Fair  flower,  that  dost  so  comely  grow, 

Hid  in  this  silent,  dull  retreat, 
Untouched  thy  honied  blossoms  blow, 
Unseen  thy  little  branches  greet : 

No  roving  foot  shall  crush  thee  here, 
No  busy  hand  provoke  a  tear. 
By  Nature's  self  in  white  arrayed, 

She  bade  thee  shun  the  vulgar  eye, 
And  planted  here  the  guardian  shade, 
And  sent  soft  waters  murmuring  by; 
Thus  quietly  thy  summer  goes, 
Thy  days  declining  to  repose. 
Smit  with  those  charms,  that  must  decay, 

I  grieve  to  see  your  future  doom; 
They  died  —  nor  were  those  flowers  more  gay, 
The  flowers  that  did  in  Eden  bloom; 
Unpitying  frosts  and  Autumn's  power 
Shall  leave  no  vestige  of  this  flower. 

i  Poems  of  Philip  Freneau,  3  vols.  Ed.  by  F.  L.  Pattee,  Princeton,  1902. 


78  History  of  American  Literature 

From  morning  suns  and  evening  dews 

At  first  thy  little  being  came: 
If  nothing  once,  you  nothing  lose, 
For  when  you  die  you  are  the  same; 
The  space  between  is  but  an  hour, 
The  frail  duration  of  a  flower. 

Estimate  of  Freneau.  In  our  enthusiasm  for  the  good 
qualities  of  this  poem  and  other  excellent  lyrics  of  Freneau' s, 
especially  when  we  recall  that  the  English  poet  Campbell 
borrowed  a  line  from  "The  Indian  Burying  Ground," 

"The  hunter  and  the  deer — a  shade," 

and  Scott  enthusiastically  praised  "The  Lament  on  the 
Patriots  who  Fell  at  Eutaw  Springs,"  himself  using  a  line 
from  this  poem  in  the  third  canto  of  Marmion,  we  are 
likely  to  overestimate  the  work  of  this  early  American;  but 
Freneau  must  after  all  be  ranked  as  a  minor  poet.  The 
following  paragraph  from  Professor  Pattee's  introduction 
to  his  excellent  edition  of  Freneau's  Poems  is  a  judicious 
summary.  "As  to  the  absolute  literary  value  of  Freneau's 
literary  remains,  there  is  room  for  honest  difference  of 
opinion.  He  certainly  is  not,  if  we  judge  him  from  what 
he  actually  produced,  a  great  poet.  But  he  must  in  fairness 
be  viewed  against  the  background  of  his  age  and  environ 
ment.  Nature  had  equipped  him  as  she  has  equipped 
few  other  men.  He  had  the  poet's  creative  imagination; 
he  had  an  exquisite  sense  of  the  beautiful;  and  he  had  a 
realization  of  his  own  poetic  endowments  that  kept  him 
during  a  long  life  constantly  true  to  the  muse.  Scarcely  a 
month  went  by  in  all  his  life,  from  his  early  boyhood,  that 
was  not  marked  by  poetic  composition.  Few  poets,  even 
in  later  and  more  auspicious  days,  have  devoted  their  lives 
more  assiduously  to  song."1 

1  Poems  of  Philip  Freneau,  Vol.  I,  Introduction,  p.  xcviii. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  79 

DRAMA  AND  FICTION 

National  drama.  The  drama  of  the  Revolutionary  era  is 
mainly  significant  for  its  historical  value  in  reflecting  the 
spirit  of  the  times.  Thomas  Godfrey's  The  Prince  of 
Parthia,  written  about  1759  and  published  in  1765,  we 
mentioned  at  the  close  of  the  colonial  period  as  the  first 
literary  drama  composed  in  America.  It  was  played  at 
Philadelphia  in  1767,  and  was,  according  to  Seilhamer, 
author  of  History  of  the  American  Theater,  the  first  American 
play  that  was  actually  staged  by  a  professional  company. 
In  the  meantime,  of  course,  many  English  plays  had  been 
acted  much  earlier;  as  early  as  1715  some  references  to  a 
theater  and  plays  acted  in  Williamsburg,  Virginia,  have 
been  noted;  and  English  plays  by  a  regular  company  were 
acted  in  New  York  as  early  as  1732,  in  Charleston,  South 
Carolina,  as  early  as  1734,  and  in  Philadelphia  as  early  as 
1749. 

Plays  on  American  subjects.  Numerous  plays  dealing 
with  American  subjects  were  written  during  the  period  of 
the  Revolution.  "Ponteach,  or  The  Savages  of  America," 
a  play  appearing  in  1766  and  dealing  in  a  satiric  way  with 
the  white  man's  cruel  and  unjust  treatment  of  the  simple- 
minded  Indians,  has  been  ascribed  on  uncertain  evidence 
to  Robert  Rogers,  an  English  officer  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War.  Mrs.  Mercy  Warren  (1728-1814),  of  Massachusetts, 
the  sister  of  James  Otis,  wrote  several  plays  on  American 
subjects,  the  best  of  which  is  "The  Group"  (1775),  a  comedy 
satirizing  the  loyalists.  Hugh  Henry  Brackenridge  (1748- 
1816),  of  Pennsylvania,  the  friend  and  classmate  of  Philip 
Freneau  and  James  Madison  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
was  the  author  of  the  best  literary  dramas  that  appeared 
during  the  period  of  the  actual  struggle  for  independence; 
they  are,  however,  more  properly  dramatic  poems  or  closet 
plays  than  acting  dramas.  The  titles  of  his  plays  are  "The 


8o  History  of  American  Literature 

Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill"  (1776)  and  "The  Death  of  General 
Montgomery"  (1777). 

William  Dunlap.  Another  dramatist  of  some  distinction 
was  William  Dunlap  (1766-1839),  of  New  York.  He  was 
a  practical  playwright  and  theater  manager  and  our  first 
historian  of  the  drama,  and  his  influence  was  considerable 
in  his  day.  He  wrote  some  thirty  original  plays,  among 
them  "The  Father;  or,  American  Shandyism"  (1789),  a 
comedy,  and  "Andre"  (1798),  an  historical  play  in  blank 
verse;  he  made  many  adaptations  of  foreign  plays  for  the 
American  stage;  he  was  a  portrait  painter  of  distinction; 
and  he  wrote  ten  or  more  biographies  and  critical  works.1 

Royall  Tyler.  One  other  name  should  be  mentioned  in 
connection  with  early  American  drama,  that  of  Royall  Tyler 
(1757—1826),  who  was  born  and  educated  in  Massachusetts, 
and  later  became  chief  justice  of  Vermont.  He  wrote  "The 
Contrast,"  a  comedy  which  was  acted  with  great  success 
in  New  York  in  1786  and  published  four  years  later.  It  is 
based  on  the  contrast  between  native  American  worth  and 
the  silly  imitation  of  foreign  conventions.  The  first  typical 
stage  Yankee,  in  the  person  of  the  shrewd  New  England 
farmer,  Jonathan,  speaking  in  his  native  dialect,  appears 
in  this  play.  Tyler  wrote  a  number  of  other  plays  and 
farces,  and  also  a  prose  narrative  of  adventure  called  The 
Algerine  Captive  (1797),  which  may  be  classed  with  our 
early  novels. 

Joseph  Dennie.  Joseph  Dennie  (1768-1812),  whose  work 
has  been  almost  entirely  forgotten,  exerted  considerable  in 
fluence  on  the  literature  of  his  day,  and  in  particular  he 
deserves  to  be  remembered  as  the  forerunner  of  Irving.  He 
was  called  the  "American  Addison,"  probably  because  he 


*In  an  extensive  monograph  by  Dr.  O  S.  Coad,  "William  Dunlap,  A  Study 
of  his  Life  and  Work  and  of  his  Place  in  Contemporary  Culture,"  recently 
published  by  the  Dunlap  Society  of  New  York,  full  lists  of  all  the  works 
of  this  indefatigable  painter,  manager,  dramatist,  and  critic  are  made 
available. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  81 

imitated  Addison  in  a  series  of  periodical  essays  published 
under  the  title  of  the  Farrago  (a  medley)  in  several  village 
newspapers  in  New  England.  Then  he  published  The  Lay 
Preacher  (1796),  a  Series  of  Essays  in  The  Farmers'  Museum, 
at  Walpole,  New  Hampshire,  and  later  collected  them  in  a 
volume.  In  1801  Dennie  became  the  founder  and  editor 
of  a  literary  periodical  published  in  Philadelphia  and  called 
The  Port  Folio.  This  magazine  was  one  of  the  most  im 
portant  early  literary  periodicals  published  in  America,  and 
the  longest-lived,  its  publication  being  continued  until 
1827.  In  The  Port  Folio  Dennie  reprinted  some  of  his 
previously  published  essays  and  many  new  ones.  He 
encouraged  the  development  of  polite  literature  and  was 
generally  looked  upon  as  the  central  figure  in  the  literary 
circles  of  Philadelphia.1 

Sentimental  novels.  A  number  of  tearful  and  highly 
sentimental  novels,  principally  by  a  school  of  women 
writers,  .appeared  toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth- 
century.  Among  these  were  Sarah  Morton's  The  Power  of 
Sympathy,  or  The  Triumph  of  Nature  Founded  in  Truth 
(1789);  Susanna  Rowson's  Charlotte  Temple,  a  Tale  of  Truth 
(1790),  Trials  of  the  Human  Heart  (1795),  and  many  other 
stories;  and  Hannah  Foster's  The  Coquette,  or  The  History 
of  Eliza  Wharton,  a  Novel  Founded  on  Fact  (1797).  Of 
the  many  sentimental  novels  of  the  time,  Charlotte  Temple, 
which  was  the  most  popular  in  its  day  and  which  has  proved 
the  most  tenacious  of  life,  being  republished  in  over  one 
hundred  editions  up  to  1905,  is  typical.  It  is  the  pathetic 
story  of  love  and  innocence,  betrayal,  desertion,  and  death 
from  a  broken  heart.  These  highly  colored  and  over 
wrought  narratives,  made  up  largely  of  unreal  characters 
and  unnatural  situations  usually  said  to  be  based  on  truth, 


iSee  Dr.  H.  M.  Ellis's  extensive  monograph  "Joseph  Dennie  and  his 
Circle,  a  Study  in  American  Literature  from  1792  to  1812,"  Bulletin,  1915, 
No.  40,  University  of  Texas,  Austin. 


82  History  of  American  Literature 

and  designed  to  move  the  reader  to  tears  and  at  the  same 
time  teach  some  moral  or  inculcate  some  paramount  virtue, 
are  now  solely  valuable  as  an  indication  of  the  taste  of  the 
times  and  as  an  American  example  of  the  English  senti 
mental  school  led  by  Samuel  Richardson,  the  author  of 
Pamela,  or  Virtue  Rewarded.  Besides  these  sentimental 
novels  may  be  named  Hugh  Henry  Brackenridge's  Modern 
Chivalry,  or  The  Adventures  of  Captain  Farrago  and  Teague 
0' Regan,  his  Servant  (1792-93-97),  a  burlesque  after  the 
manner  of  Don  Quixote,  satirizing  post-Revolutionary  cus 
toms  and  events;  and  Jeremy  Belknap's  The  Foresters  (1792), 
an  allegorical  narrative  dealing  with  the  relations  of  the 
colonies  to  the  English  government,  as  the  best  examples  of 
early  fiction  in  America. 

Charles  Brockden  Brown:  the  mystery  and  horror 
school.  Before  the  end  of  the  century  the  American  novel 
was  to  find  its  first  serious  exponent  in  a  Philadelphian, 
Charles  Brockden  Brown  (1771-1810).  He  was  descended 
from  a  Quaker  family,  educated  in  the  schools  of  Phila 
delphia,  and  prepared  for  the  profession  of  law.  Being 
strongly  drawn  toward  literature,  he  deserted  the  law  and 
turned  to  writing  as  a  means  of  earning  his  livelihood,  thus 
becoming  one  of  the  first  men  in  America  to  adopt  literature 
as  a  profession.  He  was  never  robust,  and  he  devoted  him 
self  so  steadily  to  study,  even  from  his  early  boyhood,  that 
his  health  was  permanently  impaired.  He  moved  to  New 
York  for  a  time,  and  here  published  his  first  work,  The 
Dialogue  of  Alcuin  (1797),  a  vigorous  pamphlet  on  the  rights 
of  woman.  He  was  professedly  writing  under  the  influence  of 
William  Godwin,  the  bold  English  radical  thinker,  the  author 
of  Political  Justice,  a  pamphlet,  and  Caleb  Williams,  a  romance 
in  which  the  miscarriage  of  justice  is  discussed.  The  influ 
ence  of  Godwin  and  other  members  of  the  early  romantic 
school  of  English  novelists  known  as  the  horror  school,  is, 
in  fact,  evident  in  all  of  Brown's  work.  Horace  Walpole's 


CHARLES  BROCKDEN  BROWN 


The  Revolutionary  Period  83 

The  Castle  of  Otranto,  a  Gothic  Romance,  Lewis's  The  Monk, 
and  Mrs.  Radcliffe's  The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho  are  the  stock 
examples  of  this  English  horror  school.  Brown  follows 
them  in  conjuring  up  mysteries  and  supernatural  situations 
based  on  some  reasonable  or  pseudo-scientific  grounds. 
His  first  novel,  Wieland,  or  The  Transformation  (1798), 
belongs  distinctly  to  the  horror  school,  and  we  may  analyze 
it  as  a  typical  illustration  of  the  five  other  novels  which 
followed  from  his  pen  in  rapid  succession. 

"Wieland."  This  novel,  usually  considered  as  Brown's 
most  powerful  work,  is  the  story  of  a  cultured  family  of 
Germans  who  live  in  Philadelphia  and  whose  happy  domestic 
life  is  interrupted  by  certain  strange  and  apparently  super 
natural  sounds.  These  distressing  circumstances  are  par 
tially  compensated  for  by  the  appearance  of  a  pleasing  and 
polite  stranger  named  Carwin.  Wieland's  father,  a  religious 
enthusiast,  is  said  to  have  died  from  spontaneous  combus 
tion,  an  uncanny  and  really  impossible  form  of  disease  in 
which  the  body  becomes  so  violently  heated  from  within 
that  it  is  set  on  fire  and  consumed.  The  son  inherits  a 
superstitious  trend  of  mind  and  becomes  himself  a  religious 
fanatic.  Hence  he  is  well  prepared  by  heredity  and  tem 
perament  to  answer  the  strange  and  seductive  voices  heard 
throughout  the  dwelling.  Wieland  is  called  upon  to  sacrifice 
his  beautiful  wife  and  daughter,  and  he  proceeds  to  these 
crimes  on  the  supposition  that  he  is  answering  the  commands 
of  God.  After  committing  the  double  murder,  Wieland  is 
confined  in  a  madman's  cell,  from  which  he  eventually 
escapes  and  attempts  to  murder  other  members  of  his 
family.  He  then  learns  that  he  has  been  duped  by  the 
mysterious  stranger  Carwin,  who  through  his  powers  of 
ventriloquism  has  led  Wieland  to  murder  his  family.  When 
he  realizes  what  he  has  done,  Wieland  kills  himself,  and  the 
stranger  disappears.  The  story  ends  with  the  marriage  of 
Wieland's  sister,  the  narrator  of  the  tale,  to  one  of  the  minor 


84  History  of  American  Literature 

characters.  It  can  be  readily  discerned  by  even  a  casual 
reader  that  the  plot  is  loosely  constructed  and  that  the 
motivation  of  the  action  is  entirely  insufficient  and  uncon 
vincing.  But  Brown's  power  of  portraying  the  horrible, 
the  supernatural,  the  terrible,  is  natural  and  spontaneous, 
and  there  is  no  lack  of  interest  and  excitement  in  the  reading 
of  his  story. 

Brown's  other  tales.  Brown's  Ormond,  or  The  Secret 
Witness,  appeared  in  1799,  and  Arthur  Mervyn,  or  Memoirs 
of  the  Year  1793,  in  two  volumes  in  1799  and  1800.  These 
stories  deal  with  the  terrible  yellow  fever  epidemics  which 
ravaged  Philadelphia  in  the  last  decade  of  the  century. 
Brown  had  personally  experienced  the  horrors  of  the  disease, 
being  attacked  by  it  while  he  was  living  in  New  York,  and 
his  descriptions  are  extremely  powerful  and  realistic.  Poe 
himself  has  hardly  surpassed  Brown  in  the  portrayal  of  these 
hideous  and  repulsive  scenes  of  disease  and  death,  though 
Poe's  artistic  sense,  of  course,  is  superior  to  Brown's.  Edgar 
Huntly,  or  The  Adventures  of  a  Sleep-Walker,  published  in 
1801,  shows  Brown's  descriptive  powers  to  the  best  advan 
tage,  especially  in  the  portrayal  of  the  gloomy  caves  and 
wild  natural  scenes  which  the  author  had  visited  in  his  long 
walks  about  the  environs  of  Philadelphia.  In  this  novel 
Brown  clearly  intended,  as  he  states  in  a  prefatory  note, 
to  make  his  work  distinctly  American  in  every  particular. 
He  introduced  romantic  incidents  from  Indian  life -and  war 
fare, —  thus  preceding  Cooper  in  this  field, — described  with 
accurate  details  the  exact  flora  and  fauna  of  the  wild  Ameri 
can  background,  and  gave  vivid  pictures  of  primitive 
customs  of  both  the  Indian  and  the  European  population 
of  America.  Clara  Howard  (1801)  and  Jane  Talbot  (1801) 
complete  the  list  of  Brown's  novels.  These  last  two  are 
loosely  constructed  love  stories  and  are  distinctly  inferior 
to  the  earlier  romances  of  their  author. 

Last  days:  general  estimate  of  Brown.     Brown  was  engaged 


The  Revolutionary  Period  85 

in  editorial  work  on  magazines  and  annuals  at  Philadelphia, 
and  during  his  later  years  he  occupied  himself  with  the  com 
pilation  of  geographical  and  historical  works  which  he  left 
unfinished  at  his  death  in  1810.  He  had  long  been  a  sufferer 
from  consumption,  and  in  the  later  years  his  creative  powers 
seem  to  have  been  largely  sapped  by  the  disease.  While 
he  was  not  a  great  writer,  he  was  our  first  notable  novelist, 
a  forerunner  of  Cooper,  Poe,  and  Hawthorne.  He  deserves 
to  be  remembered  also  as  our  first  purely  professional 
author.  His  romances  are  still  read  to  some  extent  by  the 
general  reader,  and  his  work  has  been  generously  praised 
by  his  early  biographers,  William  Dunlap  and  W.  H.  Pres- 
cott,  and  by  the  later  historians  of  our  literature.  After 
Franklin,  who  must  be  accorded  first  place  on  account  of 
his  immortal  Autobiography,  we  may  place  the  novelist 
Charles  Brockden  Brown  beside  the  poet  Philip  Freneau,  as 
one  of  the  two  most  important  purely  literary  figures  in 
the  first  two  centuries  of  our  history. 

SELECTED    BIBLIOGRAPHIES 
SUITABLE  FOR  HIGH-SCHOOL  LIBRARIES  AND 

OUTSIDE  READING 
Special  Reference  Books  for  Revolutionary  Literature1 

(Starred  volumes  are  especially  valuable  for  high-school  libraries.) 
For  General  Reference  Books,  see  page  40. 

i.  History  of  Literature  and  Selections 

*TYLER,   Literary  History  of  the   American  Revolution,  1763-1783;  2 

vols.,  Putnam,  N.  Y.,  1897. 
PATTERSON,  The  Spirit  of  the  American  Revolution  as  Revealed  in  the 

Poetry  of  the  Period,  a   Study  of  American  Patriotic    Verse  from 

1760  to  1783;  Badger,  Boston,  1915. 

LOSHE,  The  Early  American  Novel;  Lemcke  &  Buechner,  N.  Y.,  1908. 
*CAIRNS,  Selections  from  Early  American  Writers,  1607-1800.  (See  p.  41.) 
DUYCKINCK,  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature.     (See  p.  41.) 
*STEDMAN  and  HUTCHINSON,  Library  of  American  Literature,   Vols. 

Ill  and  IV. 


!The  important  works  of  authors  treated  in  the  body  of  the  text  are  not 
listed  here. 


86  History  of  American  Literature 

*QuiNN,  Representative  American  Plays;  Century,  N.  Y.,  1917.      (The 

first  three  plays  are  from  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  Period.) 
*MosES,  Representative  Plays  by  American  Dramatists,  3  vols.,  Button, 

N.  Y.,  1918. 

*The  American  Dramatist;  Little  Brown,  Boston,  1911. 
SEILHOMER,  History  of  the  American  Theatre;  3  vols.,  Philadelphia, 

1888-91. 
*STEDMAN,   An  American  Anthology,   1787-1900;  Hough  ton   Mifflin, 

Boston,  1900. 

*STEDMAN,  Poets  of  America;  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1899. 
EGGLESTON,  American  War  Ballads  and  Lyrics;  Putnam,  N.  Y.,  1889. 
*STEVENSON,  Poems  of  American  History;  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston, 

1908. 
MATTHEWS,  Poems  of  American  Patriotism;  Scribner's,  N.  Y.,  1898. 

2.  Later  Poetry  Dealing  with  Revolutionary  Times 

LONGFELLOW,  "Paul  Revere's  Ride." 

BRYANT,  "Song  of  Marion's  Men"  (compare  Simms's  song,  "The  Swamp 

Fox,"  in  The  Partisan). 
READ,  "The  Rising." 

EMERSON,  "Concord  Hymn,"  "Boston  Hymn." 
WHITTIER,  "Lexington,"  "Centennial  Hymn." 
HOLMES,  "Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill,"   "Ballad  of  the  Boston 

Tea-Party,"  "Lexington." 
FINCH,  "Nathan  Hale." 
LANIER,  "Psalm  of  the  West." 
HAYNE,  "Macdonald's  Raid — 1780." 
(See  Burton  E.  Stevenson's  Poems  of  American  History,   Houghton  Mifflin, 

Boston,  1908,  for  fuller  lists  of  poems  dealing  with  the  Revolutionary 

Period. 

j .  Later  Fiction  Dealing  with  Revolutionary  Times 

COOPER,  The  Spy,  The  Pilot,  Lionel  Lincoln,  etc. 

KENNEDY,  Horse-Shoe  Robinson,  a  Tale  of  the  Tory  Ascendency. 

SIMMS,    The  Partisan,   a   Tale  of  the  Revolution,   The  Scout,    Eutaw, 

Katherine  Walton,  etc. 

COOKE,  The  Virginia  Comedians,  Henry  St.  John. 
THOMPSON,  Green  Mountain  Boys,  The  Rangers. 
COFFIN,  The  Boys  of  '76. 
BUTTERWORTH,  The  Patriot  Schoolmaster. 
EGGLESTON,  A  Carolina  Cavalier. 
THACKERAY,  The  Virginians. 


The  Revolutionary  Period  87 

CRADDOCK,  The  Story  of  Old  Fort  London. 

FORD,  Janice  Meredith. 

JEWETT,  The  Tory  Lover. 

ATHERTON,  The  Conqueror  (Alexander  Hamilton). 

ALLEN,  The  Choir  Invisible. 

CHURCHILL,  Richard  Carvel. 

MITCHELL,  Hugh  Wynne,  The  Red  City. 

FREDERIC,  In  the  Valley. 

HENTY,  True  to  the  Old  Flag. 

STEVENSON,  B.  G.,  A  Soldier  of  Virginia. 

4.  Essays  and  Historical  Works  Dealing  with  the  Revolutionary  Times 

FISKE,  American  Revolution;  also,   for  young  readers,    The   War  of 

Independence. 

HART,  Formation  of  the  Union,  Camp  and  Fireside  of  the  Revolution. 
EARLE,  Stage  Coach  and  Tavern  Days. 
JENKS,  When  America  Won  Liberty. 
American    Statesmen    Series    (including    biographies    of    Washington, 

Hamilton,  Jefferson,  Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams,  Henry,  Madison, 

etc.). 


III.  ARTISTIC   OR   CREATIVE   PERIOD 

1800-1900 
PRELIMINARY  STATEMENT 

General     summary     of     the     two     preceding     periods. 

Glancing  back  over  the  whole  course  of  our  literature  up 
to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  we  observe 
that  the  earliest  American  writings  were  produced  by  the 
Southern  Colonies  with  Virginia  as  the  center  and  Captain 
John  Smith  and  Colonel  William  Byrd  as  the  chief  repre 
sentatives  of  what  we  may  term  the  Cavalier  chroniclers; 
that  the  primacy  of  literary  production  of  the  theological 
type  belongs  to  the  New  England  Colonies  with  Boston  and 
its  environs  as  the  chief  center  and  the  Reverend  Cotton 
Mather  and  the  Reverend  Jonathan  Edwards  as  the  chief 
literary  exponents  of  the  Calvinistic  theology  of  our  Puritan 
forefathers.  Then  during  the  later  struggle  between  the 
French  and  the  English  colonies  and  between  the  English 
colonies  and  the  mother  country,  the  Middle  Colonies  with 
Philadelphia  as  the  chief  city  became  the  principal  center 
of  the  controversial  literature  of  the  period,  with  orators 
and  pamphleteers  and  publicists,  such  as  Otis  and  Henry, 
Thomas  Paine  and  John  Dickinson,  Alexander  Hamilton 
and  Thomas  Jefferson  and  George  Washington  as  typical 
figures,  and  with  the  beginnings  of  a  more  personal  and 
permanent  type  of  literature  in  the  Autobiography  of 
Franklin,  the  nature  poetry  of  Philip  Freheau,  and  the 
novels  of  Charles  Brockden  Brown.  During  the  -first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  we  must  note  the  shift  of 
the  center  of  commercial  and  literary  activities  to  the 
growing  metropolis  of  New  York  City,  where  Washington 
Irving  and  his  associates  founded  what  has  later  become 
known  as  the  Knickerbocker  School. 

[88] 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group         89 

The  four   divisions   of   the    nineteenth   century.     In  a 

brief  survey  of  the  artistic  and  creative  literature  of  the 
nineteenth  century  in  America,  we  shall  find  that  several 
distinct  schools  or  movements  are  to  be  recorded,  but  these 
schools  or  movements  have  revolved  pretty  definitely  around 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States  including  New  York,  Penn 
sylvania,  and  New  Jersey,  with  New  York  City  as  the 
center;  New  England  with  Boston  and  its  environs  as  the 
center;  the  more  distinctly  local  or  regional  literary  expres 
sion  in  the  South,  as  illustrated  in  the  distinct  school  at 
Charleston,  South  Carolina;  and  the  Central  and  Far  West 
coming  forward  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century  as  the 
section  in  which  the  most  uniformly  democratic  and  purely 
national  literary  expression  has  taken  rise.  Hence  we  may 
readily  and  conveniently  group  our  chief  authors  under 
four  general  regional  divisions,  and  at  the  same  time  pre 
serve  the  general  integrity  of  the  various  schools  and  distinct 
movements  and  also  the  general  chronological  order — 
namely:  (i)  The  New  York  and  Middle  Atlantic  States 
Group;  (2)  The  New  England  Group;  (3)  The  Southern 
Group;  and  (4)  The  Central  and  Far  Western  Group. 
The  main  purpose  of  the  following  sections  will  be  to  give 
a  rapid  survey  of  the  writers  of  these  groups,  with  some 
analysis  of  the  distinct  movements  and  general  influences 
and  tendencies  in  each. 

i.  THE  NEW  YORK  AND  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC 

STATES  GROUP 
THE  MAJOR  WRITERS 

Classification  of  the  writers.  Washington  Irving,  the 
genial  storyteller,  essayist,  biographer,  and  historian,  is  the 
leader  of  the  New  York  or  Knickerbocker  School.  With  him 
are  grouped  the  three  other  major  writers:  James  Fenimore 
Cooper,  the  romancer,  who  was  born  in  New  Jersey  but 
lived  from  his  infancy  in  New  York  and  was  intimately 

7 


go  History  of  American  Literature 

associated  with  the  history  and  life  of  his  adopted  state; 
and  the  two  poets,  William  Cullen  Bryant,  who  was 
born  in  Western  Massachusetts  but  was  for  more  than  half 
a  century  the  most  prominent  figure  in  the  journalistic, 
literary,  and  cultural  life  of  New  York  City,  and  later  in 
the  century  Walt  Whitman,  who  was  born  on  Long  Island 
and  lived  almost  entirely  in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States,  for 
the  most  part  in  the  neighborhood  of  New  York,  calling  it 
"Mannahatta,  my  city."  With  these  four  major  writers 
we  may  associate  a  large  company  of  minor  writers  whose 
work,  especially  when  compared  with  much  of  our  earlier 
literature,  is  highly  meritorious. 

Washington  Irving.  Washington  Irving  (1783-1859)  has 
been  called  "The  Father  of  American  Literature,"  just  as 
the  great  statesman  and  soldier  for  whom  he  was  named  is 
called  "The  Father  of  His  Country."  In  a  certain  sense, 
Irving  is  the  father  of  American  literature.  He  was  not  our 
first  author  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  literature,  for 
Charles  Brockden  Brown  had  done  that  just  before  him; 
but  he  was  the  first  of  our  authors  to  gain  recognition  abroad, 
or,  as  Thackeray  happily  phrased  it  in  his  essay  "Nil  Nisi 
Bonum,"  "Irving  was  the  first  ambassador  whom  the  New 
World  of  letters  sent  to  the  Old."  The  Sketch  Book  was,  in 
fact,  the  first  positive  answer  to  the  tantalizing  British 
query,  "Who  reads  an  American  book?" 

His  early  life  and  education.  Irving  was  born  in  New 
York  City,  April  3,  1783,  the  year  which  marked  the 
treaty  of  peace  and  the  close  of  the  Revolution,  and  his 
mother,  who  was  an  ardent  patriot,  decided  to  name  him 
for  the  great  American  general,  for,  she  said,  "Washington's 
work  is  ended,  and  the  child  shall  be  named  for  him."  When 
Irving  was  six  years  old,  his  old  Scotch  nurse  presented  him 
to  President  Washington  for  his  blessing.  Irving  remem 
bered  the  incident,  remarking  in  later  years,  "That  blessing 
has  attended  me  through  life."  It  is  interesting,  finally, 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group         91 


to  note  in  this  connection  that  living's  last  great  work  was 
the  five-volume  Life  of  Washington,  which  appeared  in  1859 


From  an  engraving  by  E.  Burney,  after  a  photograph 
WASHINGTON  IRVING 

just  before  his  death.  Irving's  parents  were  both  born 
abroad,  his  father  being  of  Scotch  and  his  mother  of  English 
descent.  There  were  born  to  them  eleven  children,  of  whom 
Washington  was  the  youngest.  He  was  a  delicate  and 
wayward  sort  of  child,  and  hence  his  education  was  not 
very  thorough  or  systematic.  He  read  tales  of  travel  and 
adventure,  particularly  The  Arabian  Nights  and  -Robinson 
Crusoe,  when  he  ought  to  have  been  studying  his  arithmetic ; 


9 2  History  of  American  Literature 

and  it  is  said  that  he  would  willingly  write  the  other  boys' 
compositions  if  they  would  work  his  sums  for  him.  He 
dropped  out  of  school  at  sixteen,  failing  to  take  advantage 
of  the  opportunity  of  attending  Columbia  College  as  two 
of  his  brothers  did.  Instead,  he  spent  his  time  in  reading 
tales  of  romance,  slipping  away  from  home  before  and  after 
family  prayers  to  attend  the  newly  opened  theater,  and 
roaming  the  country  roundabout,  listening  to  the  good 
wives'  tales  about  ghosts  and  fairies  in  the  surrounding  hills 
and  valleys.  He  made  several  long  holiday  excursions  into 
the  Hudson  River  hill  country  farther  north,  going  on  one 
trip  as  far  north  as  Canada,  ever  collecting  those  legends 
and  nature  pictures  which  he  has  so  well  preserved  in  ' '  Rip 
Van  Winkle"  and  "The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow." 

Irving' s  love  affair.  The  plan  for  young  Irving' s  future 
was  that  he  should  become  a  lawyer.  The  chief  result  of 
his  five  years  of  desultory  study  of  law,  largely  in  Judge 
Hoffman's  office,  was  his  acquaintance  with  the  Judge's 
daughter,  Matilda.  She  was  a  beautiful  and  quick-witted 
girl,  and  Irving  fell  desperately  in  love  with  her.  She  was 
equally  attracted  to  the  handsome  and  genial  youth  and 
promised  to  marry  him,  but  developed  quick  consumption 
and  died  in  her  eighteenth  year.  Irving's  devotion  to  her 
memory  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  things  in  his  life.  He 
did  not  seclude  himself  from  society  or  become  sentimen 
tally  morbid;  indeed,  he  was  always  delighted  with  the 
society  of  women,  and  the  evidence  seems  to  show  that  he 
had  some  serious  intentions  of  marrying  later  in  life.  But 
the  fact  remains  that  he  never  married,  and  after  his  death 
there  were  found  among  his  cherished  personal  belongings  a 
lock  of  Miss  Hoffman's  hair  and  her  Bible  and  prayerbook. 

His  first  trip  abroad:  early  literary  undertakings.  Irving's 
constitution  was  still  frail,  and  so  in  1804  it  was  decided 
that  he  should  visit  Europe  partly  in  search  of  health,  but 
partly  also  for  literary  and  cultural  advantages.  He  traveled 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group         93 

through  Italy,  France,  and  England,  meeting  many  dis 
tinguished  persons  and  making  many  friends  by  his  genial 
manners  and  attractive  personality.  On  his  return  in  1806, 
he  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  but  he  devoted  his  time  more  to 
social  engagements  and  literary  experiments  than  to  his 
profession.  Before  his  trip  abroad  he  had  contributed  to  a 
New  York  paper  a  series  of  light  satiric  letters,  signing  them 
"Jonathan  Oldstyle, "  a  name  indicating  at  this  early  period 
his  fondness  for  the  eighteenth-century  Addisonian  prose. 
With  James  Kirke  Paulding1  he  now  undertook  another 
experiment,  a  semi-monthly  periodical  called  Salmagundi. 
It  was  modeled  on  the  Spectator  of  Addison  and  Steele,  and 
though  it  did  not  run  quite  a  year,  it  gave  both  of  these 
men  an  outlet  for  their  literary  aspirations  and  eventually 
led  to  other  undertakings  in  authorship. 

His  works  classified.  Irving' s  works  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes:  his  humorous  and  serious  essays  and  sketches, 
his  longer  connected  narratives,  and  his  biographical  and 
historical  narratives.  The  first  of  these  is  the  most  important 
and  will  receive  the  major  part  of  our  attention. 

"Knickerbocker's  History."  In  1809  there  appeared  the 
first  really  important  work  by  Irving,  namely,  A  History  of 
New  York  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker.  It  was  begun  as  a 
satiric  burlesque  on  Dr.  Samuel  Mitchell's  Picture  of  New 
York,  but  it  was  carried  out  in  such  a  fine  spirit  of  humorous 
extravaganza  that  it  was  at  once  recognized  as  an  original 
and  imaginative  work.  It  was  preceded  by  a  clever  series  of 
advertising  notes  in  the  form  of  news  items  about  the  peculiar 
and  distressing  disappearance  of  Diedrich  Knickerbocker, 
"  a  small,  elderly  gentleman,  dressed  in  an  old  black  coat  and 
a  cocked  hat. "  He  had  left  behind  him  a  curious  manuscript, 

1Aside  from  his  association  with  Irving  in  the  Salmagundi  papers,  James 
Kirke  Paulding  (1778-1860)  is  now  chiefly  remembered  for  his  novel,  The 
Dutchman's  Fireside  (1831),  which  portrays  with  considerable  charm  and 
accuracy  the  quaint  Dutch  customs  and  beautiful  Hudson  river  scenery 
which  Irving  had  some  years  before  made  famous  in  his  Knickerbocker's 
History  and  Sketch  Book. 


94  History  of  American  Literature 

which  would  be  sold  to  pay  his  board  bill.  Naturally,  when 
this  manuscript  was  published  everybody  wanted  to  read  it, 
and  everybody,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  serious-minded 
Dutch  historians,  was  delighted  with  the  good-natured  and 
playful  satire,  the  mock-serious  exaggeration,  and  the  quaint 
Dutch  reminiscences  which  the  book  contained.  It  was 
talked  of  and  bandied  about  so  freely  that  it  gave  a  new  word 
to  the  language,  Knickerbocker,  the  generic  name  for  the 
Dutch  freeholders,  a  term  later  applied  to  the  first  school 
of  nineteenth  century  American  writers.  It  is  a  diffi 
cult  thing  for  a  purely  humorous  work  to  hold  its  place  of 
popularity,  and  so  we  find  today  comparatively  few  readers 
of  Knickerbocker's  History.  A  little  of  it  is  still  highly 
amusing,  but  style  in  writing,  as  in  dress,  changes  from 
generation  to  generation,  and  the  broad  splashes  of  humor 
and  elephantine  facetiousness  of  the  celebrated  Knicker 
bocker's  History  are  not  so  attractive  to  modern  readers  as 
they  were  to  Irving 's  contemporaries. 

Irving's  social  activities.  After  Knickerbocker's  History 
Irving  seems  to  have  rested  on  his  laurels  for  a  period  of  ten 
years.  He  was  nominally  engaged  in  business  with  his 
brothers,  but  his  duties  seem  to  have  been  mainly  to  keep 
up  the  social  side  of  the  house.  He  was  sent  to  Washington, 
ostensibly  to  protect  the  claims  of  certain  business  interests 
before  Congress,  but  his  letters  relate  more  of  his  experiences 
in  the  drawing-rooms  of  Mrs.  Dolly  Madison  and  others  than 
of  his  business  activities.  He  also  visited  Baltimore  and 
Philadelphia,  where  he  was  received  in  the  best  society.  His 
literary  success  had  paved  the  way  for  him  everywhere,  and 
he  was  already  something  of  a  social  lion.  So  ran  the  merry 
years  away;  and  some  serious  ones,  too,  for  Irving -passed 
through  the  War  of  1812,  not  in  active  service,  it  is  true, 
but  as  a  military  aid  to  Governor  Tompkins  of  New  York. 

Irving' s  second  visit  to  Europe:  "  The  Sketch  Book."  In 
1815  he  went  to  England  to  visit  one  of  his  brothers, 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group         95 

intending  to  stay  only  a  short  time,  but  it  was  1832  before 
he  set  foot  on  American  soil  again.     He  became  the  familiar 


JOSEPH  JEFFERSON  AS  RIP  VAN  WINKLE 

friend  of  many  notable  persons  in  England  and  on  the  con 
tinent,  among  them  Sir  Walter  Scott,  whom  he  visited  at 


96  History  of  American  Literature 

Abbotsford.  Then  the  business  affairs  of  the  family  had 
become  involved,  and  Irving  turned  to  literature  for  support. 
In  1819  he  sent  his  manuscript  sketches  back  to  New  York 
and  had  them  published  serially  in  nine  numbers  as  The 
Sketch  Book  of  Geoffrey  Crayon.  Sir  Walter  Scott  interested 
himself  in  Irving's  behalf  and  finally  succeeded  in  getting 
the  famous  English  publishing  house  of  Murray  to  bring 
out  a  standard  edition  in  England  during  the  next  year. 
The  book  was  a  great  success  —  the  first  American  book, 
in  fact,  that  had  been  widely  read  in  England.  Some  of 
the  sketches  now  appeal  to  us  as  over-sentimental  and  even 
mawkish,  but  the  fine  quality  of  the  style,  the  rich  humor, 
and  the  emotional  fitness  of  most  of  the  selections  make 
The  Sketch  Book  a  classic  in  our  literature.  Four  of  the 
papers  have  been  singled  out  as  masterpieces  of  their  kind — 
"Rip  Van  Winkle"  and  "The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow," 
two  tales  supposed  to  be  the  posthumous  work  of  Diedrich 
Knickerbocker,  and  two  pleasingly  romantic  essays,  "West 
minster  Abbey"  and  " Stratford-on-Avon. " 

Other  books  in  the  "Sketch  Book"  vein.  Other  books  of 
sketches  and  stories  are  Bracebridge  Hall  (1822),  Tales  of  a 
Traveler  (1824),  The  Alhambra  (1832),  and  Wolfert's  Roost 
(1855).  Each  of  these  contains  some  excellent  work,  but  no 
one  of  them  quite  equals  The  Sketch  Book  in  power  and  popu 
larity.  Bracebridge  Hall  contains  the  quaintly  humorous 
sketch  of  "The  Stout  Gentleman"  and  the  Knickerbocker 
story  of  "Dolph  Heileger."  In  the  Tales  of  a  Traveler 
are  a  number  of  stories  of  adventure  that  will  delight 
young  readers,  such  as  "Kidd  the  Pirate"  and  "The  Devil 
and  Tom  Walker"  found  in  the  fourth  division  under  the 
general  title  of  "The  Money-Diggers."  The  Alhambra, 
called  by  Prescott  "that  delightful  Spanish  Sketch  Book," 
is,  next  to  the  original  volume,  the  best  of  all  the  series  of 
short  sketches  and  stories.  It  is  a  book  filled  with  beautiful 
descriptions,  strange  legends,  and  romantic  tales.  Irving 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  York  Group         97 

was  deeply  impressed  with  the  beauty  of  the  old  Moorish 
palace,  and  he  has  succeeded  remarkably  well  in  investing 
this  wonderful  building  with  a  glamour  of  mystical  romance 
and  rich  legendary  lore.  These  essays,  sketches,  and  tales, 
then,  are  the  productions  upon  which  Irving's  literary  fame 
chiefly  rests.  In  this  connection  we  may  quote  a  significant 
passage  from  a  letter  written  by  Irving  in  1824  when  some 
of  his  friends  were  urging  him  to  write  a  novel. 

For  my  part,  I  consider  a  story  merely  as  a  frame  on  which  to 
stretch  my  materials.  It  is  the  play  of  thought  and  sentiment  and 
language;  the  weaving  in  of  characters,  lightly,  yet  expressively,  delin 
eated;  the  familiar  and  faithful  exhibition  of  scenes  in  common  life; 
and  the  half-concealed  vein  of  humor  that  is  often  playing  through 
the  whole  —  these  are  among  what  I  aim  at,  and  upon  which  I  felicitate 
myself  in  proportion  as  I  think  I  succeed.  I  have  preferred  adopting 
the  mode  of  sketches  and  short  tales  rather  than  long  works,  because 
I  choose  to  take  a  line  of  writing  peculiar  to  myself,  rather  than  fall 
into  the  manner  and  school  of  any  other  writer. 

Irving's  longer  narratives.  We  may  dismiss  the  second 
class  with  but  a  brief  mention  of  titles:  A  Tour  of  the 
Prairies  (1835),  Astoria  (1836),  and  The  Adventures  of 
Captain  Bonnemlle  (1837).  These,  though  American  in 
setting  and  coloring,  being  the  results  of  Irving's  tour  in 
what  was  then  the  wild  western  frontier,  just  across  the 
Mississippi,  are  the  least  valuable  of  all  Irving's  works. 
They  were  written  largely  to  satisfy  the  popular  demand 
for  more  work  from  Irving's  pen.  Their  chief  interest  now 
lies  in  their  illuminating  record  of  the  early  frontier  life. 

Biographical  and  historical  works.  The  third  class  of 
Irving's  writings  really  begins  with  his  second  distinct 
literary  impulse — namely,  that  received  from  his  sojourn  in 
Spain.  Here  we  find  the  ambitious  biographies  and  his 
torical  narratives  taking  shape.  In  1826  Irving  was  invited 
to  Spain  to  undertake  a  translation  of  a  new  work,  The  Voy 
ages  of  Columbus.  When  he  reached  Madrid,  he  found  that 


98  History  of  American  Literature 

this  new  book  was  not  suited  for  translation;  but  nothing 
daunted,  he  began  with  prodigious  energy  to  collect  material 
for  an  original  Life  of  Columbus.  He  found  a  great  mass  of 
documents  ready  to  his  hand,  and  in  1828  Murray  published 
the  three-volume  Life  of  Columbus.  This  was  the  first  of 
Irving's  Spanish  studies,  and  also  his  first  effort  in  bio 
graphical  narrative.  Then  followed  a  number  of  other 
books  dealing  with  Spanish  history,  among  them  The  Con 
quest  of  Granada  (1829),  Legend  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain 
(1835),  and  Mahomet  and  His  Successors  (1850).  The 
Alhambra  has  already  been  mentioned. 

Irving s  "Life  of  Goldsmith."  It  was  while  he  was  in 
Spain  also  that  Irving  conceived  the  plan  of  writing  his 
biographical  masterpiece,  The  Life  of  Washington  (1859),  but 
it  was  not  until  after  his  second  residence  in  Spain  and  his 
final  return  to  America  that  he  carried  out  this  design.  The 
one  other  biographical  work  which  must  not  be  omitted  is 
The  Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  (1849),  published  also  after  his 
final  return  to  America.  This  is  the  most  popular  of  all 
his  biographies  because  it  is  briefer  and  probably  more  sym 
pathetic  in  its  treatment  than  either  of  the  other  two  more 
extended  studies.  In  fact,  Goldsmith  and  Irving  are  similar 
in  many  respects.  Each  was  good-natured  and  genial,  each 
was  more  or  less  improvident  and  impecunious, —  though 
Irving  succeeded  in  accumulating  a  competence  toward 
the  end  of  his  life, — each  remained  unmarried  through  life, 
and  each  possessed  a  peculiarly  harmonious  and  charming 
prose  style.  Moreover,  the  subject-matter  of  a  good  deal  of 
their  work  is  quite  similar.  Finally,  each  of  them  has  been 
called  the  best-beloved  author  in  his  country.  But  as 
Professor  William  P.  Trent  points  out,  Irving  is  not  an 
imitator  merely,  but  an  original  writer.  "He  is  not  an 
American  Goldsmith;  he  is  an  Anglo-Saxon  Irving." 

"Sunnyside,"  Irving's  home.  Upon  Irving's  return  to 
America  in  1832  he  thought  he  would  settle  down  for  a  quiet 


zoo  History  of  American  Literature 

and  peaceful  literary  life.  He  bought  an  attractive  estate 
on  the  Hudson  and  named  it  "Sunnyside,"  and  here  he 
made  himself  comfortable.  His  American  publishers  brought 
out  a  complete  edition  of  his  works,  a  venture  which  was 
undertaken  with  some  hesitation,  but  which  proved  eminently 
successful,  Irving  himself  receiving  $88,000  in  royalties  before 
his  death. 

Last  visit  to  Europe:  "Life  of  Washington."  In  1842 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  Spain,  an  honor  which  he  had 
abundantly  earned,  but  one  which  he  accepted  somewhat 
unwillingly  because  it  took  him  away  from  his  home.  He 
gladly  relinquished  his  post  in  1846  and  came  back  to 
America  to  complete  his  last  literary  work,  The  Life  of 
Washington.  He  was  feted  and  sought  after  and  honored 
in  many  ways  by  his  admirers.  But  he  was  growing  tired 
df -.it  all,  and  his  only  hope  now  was  that  he  might  "go 
down  with  all  sail  set."  He  died  at  "Sunnyside,"  Novem 
ber  28,  1859,  full  of  years  and  rich  in  love  and  honors.  His 
tomb  overlooks  Sleepy  Hollow  and  the  majestic  river  which 
?he  loved  and  over  which  he  has  thrown  the  glamour  of 
romance  and  literary  legend.1 

James  Fenimore  Cooper.  Almost  since  his  very  first 
appearance  as  an  author  James  Fenimore  Cooper  (1789- 
1851)  has  been  called  "The  American  Scott,"  but  as  Lowell 
long  ago  intimated,  the  comparison  is  much  to  the  American 
author's  disadvantage.  It  is  true  that  Scott  was  the  inspira 
tion  of  some  of  the  best  of  Cooper's  creative  work,  and  it  is 
also  true  that  there  is  a  certain  similarity  between  these 
authors  in  their  love  of  outdoor  life,  adventure,  and  exciting 
action;  in  largeness  and  sweep  rather  than  delicacy  and 
finish  of  style;  and  in  the  final  effects  of  their  romances  on 
the  imagination  of  their  readers.  But  in  his  power  of 

1  The  standard  life  of  Irving  is  that  by  Pierre  Irving  in  three  volumes. 
The  biographies  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner  and  H.  W.  Boynton  in  the 
American  Men  of  Letters  and  the  Riverside  Biographical  Series  respectively 
are  excellent  shorter  studies. 


JAMES  FENIMORE  COOPER 


102;  l/\  ^S     'tif story  of  American  Literature 

reproducing  past  ages  of  history,  in  his  wonderful  array  of 
original  character  creations,  and  in  the  structural  com 
pleteness  and  final  artistic  charm  of  his  romances,  Scott  far 
and  away  surpasses  his  American  follower. 

General  critical  estimate.  Cooper  is  undoubtedly  the  most 
uneven  of  our  greater  writers.  He  has  done  some  things 
wonderfully  well,  but  he  has  also  produced  some  books  of 
exceedingly  little  worth.  Along  with  his  excellences  .he  dis 
plays  so  many  conspicuous  faults  as  a  stylist  that  there  are 
some  modern  critics  who  feel  inclined  even  to  deny  him  a 
place  among  the  major  writers  of  America.  It  is  true  that 
his  grammar  is  not  always  correct,  that  his  diction  is  some 
times  turgid  and  bombastic,  and  that  there  are  many  evi 
dences  of  weakness  in  the  general  structural  elements  of  his 
stories.  It  is  also  true  that  there  is  a  lack  of  consistency, 
probability,  and  realism  in  his  plots;  and  no  one  will  deny 
that  most  of  his  characters,  particularly  his  faultless 
"females,"  are  more  wooden  and  artificial  than  real  flesh-and- 
blood  men  and  women.  However,  when  we  consider  the 
richness  of  Cooper's  invention,  the  beauty,  sweep,  and  power 
of  his  natural  backgrounds,  the  energy  displayed  in  -his  few 
great  character  creations,  the  originality  and  intense  Ameri 
canism  of  his  major  conceptions,  and  the  interest-gripping 
power  of  his  most  successful  tales,  we  must  inevitably  accept 
him  not  only  as  one  of  our  pioneer  writers  but  as  one  of  our 
largest  creative  geniuses. 

Cooper's  early  life  and  education.  The  eleventh  of  the 
twelve  children  of  William  Cooper  and  Elizabeth  Fenimore 
was  born  at  Burlington,  New  Jersey,  September  15,  1789, 
and  christened  James.  After  he  had  reached  maturity,  by 
an  act  of  the  New  York  legislature  he  assumed  his  mother's 
maiden  name  and  has  ever  since  been  known  as  James 
Fenimore  Cooper.  Judge  William  Cooper  owned  a  large 
estate  on  the  shores  of  Otsego  Lake  in  central  New  York, 
and  when  James  was  about  a  year  old,  Judge  Cooper  moved 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group      103 

into  a  home  which  he  had  built  in  the  forests  of  his  estate  and 
named  it ' '  The  Hall. ' '  Here,  at  what  has  since  become  Coop- 
erstown,  the  boy  grew  up  and  became  familiarly  acquainted 
with  those  wild,  free  scenes  of  the  primeval  wilderness 
which  he  was  later  to  people  with  its  aboriginal  inhabitants, 
the  creations  of  his  own  imagination,  it  is  true,  but  based 
on  actual  observation  of  Indian  and  pioneer  life  as  it  was 
impressed  on  his  childhood's  memory.  There  was  but  little 
opportunity  for  formal  education  in  this  undeveloped  terri 
tory,  and  so  Judge  Cooper  sent  his  children  to  the  more 
thickly  populated  settlements  for  their  schooling.  James 
was  sent  to  Albany  for  a  year  to  be  tutored  for  college. 
With  a  very  inadequate  preparation  he  entered  Yale  at  the 
early  age  of  thirteen.  He  apparently  paid  little  attention 
to  his  academic  duties,  and  in  his  third  year  he  was  dis 
missed  from  the  college.  It  is  unfortunate  that  Cooper  did 
not  complete  his  education,  for  his  style  might  have  been 
greatly  chastened  and  refined  if  he  had  submitted  to  the 
discipline  of  a  careful  literary  training  in  his  youth.  Even 
after  he  left  college  he  might  have  improved  his  style  by 
practice  and  self-criticism  if  he  had  begun  early  enough ;  but 
he  was  past  thirty  when  he  began  to  write,  and  so  he  was 
never  able  to  overcome  fully  the  handicap  of  his  youthful 
neglect  of  educational  opportunities. 

His  experiences  in  the  navy.  Judge  Cooper,  now  a  con 
gressman,  looked  upon  the  navy  as  offering  a  promising 
career  and  certainly  a  good  disciplinary  training  for  his 
independent,  self-willed,  and  adventurous  son.  Accord 
ingly,  at  the  time  of  the  boy's  dismissal  from  Yale,  he  secured 
a  post  for  him  on  a  merchantman  and  sent  him  to  sea. 
This  was  the  method  of  preliminary  training  for  officers 
of  the  navy  in  the  days  before  the  founding  of  the  naval 
academy  at  Annapolis.  For  nearly  a  year  the  young  sailor 
stood  the  tests  before  the  mast,  traveling  through  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  returning  by  way  of  London, 


io4  History  of  American  Literature 

and  crossing  the  Atlantic  with  all  the  experiences  of  storms, 
hardships,  and  excitements  of  those  early  days  of  pirates 
and  freebooters.  He  then  became  a  midshipman  in  the 
United  States  Navy,  and  for  three  years  passed  his  life  on 
board  various  ships,  mostly  on  the  Great  Lakes,  but  also 
crossing  the  Atlantic  in  a  visit  to  foreign  ports.  Of  these 
early  sea  experiences  we  learn  more  from  Cooper's  sea  tales 
than  from  any  authentic  records  of  his  life  during  this  period. 

Cooper  an  accidental  author.  In  1810  Cooper  secured  a 
year's  leave  of  absence  from  the  navy  with  the  privilege  of 
retiring  permanently  if  he  so  desired.  In  1811,  having  in 
•the  meantime  married  Miss  Susan  De  Lancey,  he  resigned 
his  commission,  and  for  the  next  ten  years  lived  the  life 
of  a  farmer,  or  country  gentleman,  on  his  father's  and  his 
father-in-law's  estates.  It  was  about  1820  that  the  interest 
ing  episode  occurred  which  turned  Cooper's  life  into  literary 
channels.  While  reading  a  novel  of  English  society  life  to 
his  wife,  he  suddenly  threw  down  the  book  in  disgust, 
exclaiming  that  he  could  write  a  better  novel  himself.  His 
wife  challenged  him  to  make  good  his  boast,  and  under  her 
encouragement  Cooper  produced  within  a  short  time  a  two 
volume  novel,  Precaution,  a  book  which  was  a  failure  in 
everything  except  that  it  showed  Cooper  he  really  had  a  gift 
for  writing.  He  knew  little  or  nothing  of  English  society, 
and  so,  as  might  have  been  foreseen,  he  did  not  succeed  in 
portraying  it.-  But  when  his  friends  encouraged  him  to  try 
again,  he  turned  in  his  next  venture  to  an  American  subject 
and  American  scenery,  and  produced  The  Spy,  the  first 
widely  successful  American  novel. 

Classification  of  his  novels.  Cooper's  stories  may  be 
conveniently  treated  in  three  classes:  (i)  his  historical  tales, 
best  represented  by  The  Spy;  (2)  his  Sea  Tales,  best  repre 
sented  by  The  Pilot;  and  (3)  the  stories  of  Indian  and  pioneer 
life  in  the  colonial  days,  best  represented  by  the  Leather- 
stocking  Tales. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       105 

"The  Spy."  It  was  in  1821  that,  with  some  hesitancy 
and  at  his  own  financial  risk,  Cooper  published  his  first 
important  novel,  The  Spy.  It  is  a  tale  of  the  Revolution, 
based  upon  the  romantic  exploits  of  the  spy,  Harvey  Birch, 
a  secret  agent  in  the  confidence  of  Washington,  but  a  man 
thoroughly  hated  and  distrusted  by  the  American  patriots 
because  he  was  in  all  outward  appearances  a  British  partisan. 
His  marvelous  adventures  in  the  war,  his  intrepid  and  some 
times  reckless  unconcern  for  his  own  safety,  his  astuteness 
and  agility  in  extricating  himself  from  perilous  situations 
and  all  kinds  of  difficulties,  his  mysterious  mission,  his 
charmed  life,  and  his  unswerving  patriotism  and  loyalty  to 
the  American  cause  make  Harvey  Birch  one  of  the  prime 
favorites  in  the  gallery  of  American  fictitious  characters. 
So  realistically  are  his  adventures  described  that  several 
persons  have  claimed  to  be  the  original  from  which  the 
character  was  drawn,  and  not  a  few  readers,  even  to  this  day, 
are  convinced  that  Harvey  Birch  is  a  historical  character. 
The  Spy  was  not  only  widely  read  in  America  and  England, 
but  it  was  almost  immediately  translated  into  every  impor 
tant  foreign  language  and  read  with  delight  by  practically 
every  court  and  capital  of  the  world.  Just  as  Lord  Byron 
by  his  poetical  romances  is  said  to  have  carried  English 
literature  upon  a  pilgrimage  over  Europe,  so  Cooper  may  be 
said  to  have  been  the  first  American  who  led  American  fic 
tion  on  a  pilgrimage  throughout  all  Europe.  Irving's  Sketch 
Book  had  blazed  the  way,  more  particularly  in  England, 
but  Cooper  extended  the  path  to  every  civilized  country 
of  Europe.  Had  Cooper  written  nothing  else,  The  Spy 
alone  is  enough  to  give  him  a  place  in  the  roll  of  Ameri 
can  novelists.  Its  popularity  has  never  waned,  and  it  is 
perhaps  true  that  this  thrilling  romance  has  as  many  readers 
today  as  it  had  during  its  first  years  of  popular  favor. 

Cooper's  Sea  Tales.  The  next  book  which  Cooper  pub 
lished  was  The  Pioneers  (1823),  the  first  of  the  famous 


106  History  of  American  Literature 

Leatherstocking  Tales.  But  before  taking  up  these,  we 
shall  consider  another  group  of  stories  introduced  by  The 
Pilot,  written  in  this  same  year  but  not  published  until  so 
late  in  December  that  it  is  usually  dated  1824.  This  was 
not  only  the  first  significant  American  sea  tale,  but  in  reality 
the  first  distinctively  successful  sea  story  in  English  litera 
ture.  Smollett,  the  eighteenth-century  British  novelist, 
had  first  shown  in  Roderick  Random  the  possibilities  of  the 
sea  as  a  new  realm  for  romancers  to  conquer,  but  he  had 
attracted  few  or  no.  adventurers  to  follow  him.  Sir  Walter 
Scott  had  just  published  The  Pirate,  a  tale  in  which  the  sea 
naturally  becomes  prominent.  On  reading  Scott's  novel, 
which  had  been  published  anonymously,  Cooper  insisted 
that  it  was  written  by  a  landsman  who  knew  very  little 
about  the  sea  from  personal  contact.  His  own  experience  in 
early  life  gave  him  peculiar  advantages  for  the  task  which 
he  now  set  himself,  —  namely,  the  writing  of  a  book  which 
should  deal  entirely  with  the  ocean  and  present  real  sailors 
and  realistic  events  lighted  up  with  a  touch  of  romance,  so 
as  to  make  the  story  a  convincing  presentation  of  life  on 
the  sea.  The  Pilot  is  based  on  the  cruise  of  John  Paul  Jones, 
though  nowhere  in  the  story  is  the  great  Revolutionary 
sailor's  name  mentioned.  It  was  a  notable  thing  to  intro 
duce  into  a  sea-tale  such  historical  material,  but  still  more 
notable  was  the  creation  of  Long  Tom  Coffin,  the  rough, 
uncouth,  superstitious,  but  faithful,  honest,  and  loyal  old 
tar.  He  stands  with  Harvey  Birch,  Natty  Bumppo,  and 
Chingachgook  as  one  of  the  four  greatest  characters  produced 
by  Cooper's  imagination.  Cooper  followed  this  first  success 
in  the  romance  of  the  sea  by  nine  other  sea  tales,  but  it  is 
perhaps  unnecessary  to  recommend  to  young  readers  any  of 
these  except  The  Red  Rover  (1828)  and  The  Two  Admirals 
(1842). 

Cooper's   success.     The   publication   of   the   three   great 
novels,  The  Spy,  The  Pioneers,  and  The  Pilot,  between  1821 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       107 

and  1824  had  given  Cooper's  name  to  the  world,  but  it  was 
in  1826  that  he  reached  the  very  acme  of  his  fame  by  the 
publication  of  the  second  and  the  best  of  the  Leatherstocking 
Tales,  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans.  It  has  been  confidently 
asserted  that  no  American  before  or  since  has  reached  the 
world-wide  popularity  which  he  enjoyed  at  this  time.  Since 
1822  he  had  been  living  in  New  York  City  to  obtain  educa 
tional  advantages  for  his  daughters  and  to  be  at  the  literary 
center  of  the  country.  He  founded  a  club  and  was  its 
acknowledged  leader  for  several  years.  In  fact,  he  was  now 
something  of  a  literary  lion,  and  he  felt  distinctly  the  impor 
tance  of  his  position  as  the  most  popular  writer  of  his  day. 
The  poet  Bryant  in  reporting  a  dinner  to  his  wife  wrote  that 
Cooper  "engrossed  the  whole  conversation,  and  seems  a 
little  giddy  with  the  great  success  his  works  have  met  with. " 

"The  Last  0}  the  Mohicans."  The  scene  of  The  Last  of 
the  Mohicans  is  the  well-known  wilderness  of  central  New 
York  where  Cooper  had  spent  his  childhood.  The  conflict 
between  the  French  and  the  English  for  the  supremacy  in 
America  forms  the  historical  background,  and  the  vast 
forests  and  rivers  and  lakes  the  natural  setting  of  the  series 
of  thrilling  episodes  which  constitute  the  plot.  Natty 
Bumppo,  the  famous  scout,  previously  introduced  as  Leather- 
stocking  in  The  Pioneers,  is  here  presented  in  the  prime 
of  life  and  called  Hawk-eye  after  the  Indian  manner  of 
designation.  His  friend  Chingachgook,  the  stolid  old 
Mohican  chieftain,  and  the  lithe  and  athletic  Uncas,  sorrow 
fully  called  by  Chingachgook  "the  last  of  the  Mohicans," 
and  Magua,  the  treacherous  Indian  runner,  a  member  of  the 
Mohawk  tribe  and  an  enemy  of  the  Mohicans,  are  among 
the  chief  character  creations  worthy  of  remembrance  in  this 
stirring  romance  of  pioneer  days  in  the  American  colonies. 

The  Leatherstocking  Tales.  The  best  sequence  in  which 
to  read  the  five  Leatherstocking  Tales  now  is  not  in  the  order 
in  which  they  were  written  but  that  in  which  the  life  of  Natty 


io8  History  of  American  Literature 

Bumppo  is  presented  chronologically  in  a  sort  of  "drama  in 
five  acts."  The  Deer  slayer  (1841)  shows  the  scout  just 
merging  into  manhood;  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  (1826)  and 
The  Pathfinder  (1840)  show  him  in  the  full  vigor  of  middle 
life;  The  Pioneers  (1823)  presents  him  as  already  an  old  man, 
and  in  The  Prairie  (1827)  his  career  terminates  when  he 
answers  "Here!"  to  the  last  summons.1  Thus  this  heroic 
figure,  the  one  great  epic  character  in  our  literature,  is  fully 
drawn  in  these  five  romances.  By  common  consent  the 
series  is  now  looked  upon  as  America's  greatest  prose  epic. 
Natty  Bumppo,  no  matter  by  which  of  his  four  or  five 
pseudonyms  you  call  him,  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  world's 
chief  fictitious  characters.  It  is  perhaps  less  as  a  great 
personality  than  as  the  representative  of  a  vanished  era  in 
American  history  that  he  is  valued.  No  matter  how  idealized 
the  characters  in  these  books  may  be,  no  matter  how  improb 
able  the  romantic  adventures  described,  no  matter  how 
inaccurate  and  inconsistent  in  minor  details  of  plot  and  style, 
the  Leatherstocking  Tales  form  the  truest  epic  of  our  early 
colonial  life  that  the  world  possesses,  and  this  great  imagina 
tive  creation  will  surely  hold  its  place  in  public  regard  long 
after  all  else  that  Cooper  wrote  is  forgotten. 

Decline  of  Cooper's  personal  popularity.  In  1826  Cooper, 
in  the  full  flush  of  his  popularity,  went  abroad  with  his 
family  and  remained  for  seven  years,  traveling  in  several  of 
the  European  countries.  During  these  years  he  began  to  write 
himself  down  almost  as  speedily  as  he  had  written  himself  up 
in  the  public  regard.  It  is  true  that  some  of  his  great  books 
were  yet  to  be  given  to  the  world,  but  in  the  assumed  role  of 
defender  of  democratic  institutions  at  all  hazards,  he  soon 
won  a  number  of  enemies  in  aristocratic  Europe ;  and  on  his 
return  to  America,  having  now  been  abroad  long  enough  to 
recognize  the  shortcomings  of  his  countrymen,  he  under- 

iA  good  device  for  remembering  the  titles  in  chronological  order  is  to 
note  that  they  come  in  alphabetic  order:  D-,  L-,  Pa-,  Pi-,  Pr-. 


Copyright,  Keystone  View  Co. 
MONUMENT  AT  COOPERSTOWN,  NEW  YORK 

This  monument  stands  on  the  site  of  Otsego  Hall,  the  home  of  James 
Fenimore  Cooper  at  Cooperstown. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       109 

took  the  thankless  task  of  reforming  the  nation  by  openly 
quarreling  with  it  and  castigating  its  follies.  The  result  was 
that  he  became  as  severely  hated  as  he  had  been  previously 
extravagantly  praised.  He  was  mercilessly  attacked  in  the 
press,  and  he  promptly  retorted  by  suing  for  libel  every 
paper  in  which  he  had  been  lampooned.  He  had  a  dozen 
or  more  of  these  suits  during  this  period,  and  almost  invari 
ably  he  conducted  his  own  cases  and  won  favorable  verdicts. 
This  soon  brought  his  detractors  to  their  senses,  and  he  was 
thereafter  less  violently  assailed  in  the  public  prints,  but  no 
less  violently  condemned  in  private.  There  is  no  doubt 
now,  after  the  lapse  of  many  years,  that  Cooper  was  at  heart 
a  loyal  and  devoted  patriot,  kind  and  tender  in  his  family 
and  personal  relations,  unswerving  in  his  honesty,  but  unre 
lenting  in  his  prosecution  of  what  appeared  to  him  as  igno 
rance  and  injustice.  He  was  lacking  in  tact,  grace,  and 
diplomacy  in  dealing  with  individuals  and  the  public,  and 
hence  he  was  an  adept  in  what  has  been  called  by  Whistler 
"the  gentle  art  of  making  enemies." 

Cooper's  decline  in  creative  power.  Naturally  these  con 
tests  embittered  Cooper's  later  years  and  prevented  him 
from  advancing  steadily  in  his  creative  work.  He  wrote 
some  books  that  are  still  valued  both  as  literary  productions 
and  as  historical  documents.  His  History  of  the  United  States 
Navy  (1839),  for  example,  was  condemned  as  a  partisan 
document  at  the  time,  but  it  is  now  recognized  as  one  of 
the  important  contributions  to  the  history  of  our  navy.  For 
the  most  part,  however,  Cooper  gave  over  his  talents  to  the 
writing  of  severe  criticisms  and  purpose  novels,  first  espousing 
one  cause  and  then  another.  His  reputation  brought  him 
many  readers  for  each  new  book,  but  the  public  soon  learned 
to  discredit  these  later  productions,  and  today  everybody 
realizes  that  it  would  have  been  much  better  for  Cooper's 
fame  if  he  had  left  unwritten  at  least  two-thirds  of  the 
thirty- two  separate  novels  which  he  published. 


no  History  of  American  Literature 

His  service  to  our  literature  commemorated.  Cooper  finally 
retired  from  New  York  City  and  made  his  permanent  home 
at  "The  Hall"  on  Otsego  Lake  near  Cooperstown.  Here  he 
died,  September  14,  1851,  having -rounded  out  to  the  day 
his  sixty-second  year.  A  short  time  after  the  news  of  his 
death  came,  a  few  of  his  admirers  and  friends  in  New  York 
City,  realizing  his  great  service  to  American  letters,  held  a 
memorial  service  at  which  Daniel  Webster  and  William 
Cullen  Bryant  delivered  orations.  At  Cooperstown  a 
majestic  monument  was  later  erected  to  his  memory.  It 
consists  of  a  huge  boulder  of  rough  granite  surmounted  by 
the  .romantic  figure  of  an  Indian  hunter  in  the  attitude  of 
the  chase,  bearing  a  bow  in  one  hand  and  holding  in  his  dog 
with  the  other.  So  after  the  " fretful  stir  unprofitable"  of 
his  later  years,  Cooper's  body  rests  peacefully  now  in  the 
midst  of  the  country  over  which  he  threw  the  wonderful 
spirit  of  Indian  romance.  He  was  in  many  ways  an  admir 
able  man,  and  his  service  to  our  literature  cannot  easily  be 
over-estimated.1 

William  Cullen  Bryant.  William  Cullen  Bryant  (1794- 
1878)  has  been  called  "The  American  Wordsworth,"  because 
he  was  most  profoundly  influenced  by  the  teachings  of  that 
great  English  poet  in  making  nature  the  most  prominent 
object  of  his  reflective  musings.  He  is  undoubtedly  Amer 
ica's  greatest  nature  poet,  just  as  Wordsworth  is  England's. 
He  interpreted  nature  as  he  saw  and  knew  it  as  a  New  Eng 
land  country  boy ;  and  while  the  application  of  his  best 
poetry  is  universal,  it  was  the  American  flowers,  birds,  and 
scenery  that  he  painted,  and  the  American  point  of  view  is 
everywhere  evident.  Bryant  has  also  been  called  the 
first  distinctively  great  American  poet,  the  poet  who  first 
produced  work  recognized  in  England  as  in  any  way  com 
parable  to  that  of  the  nineteenth-century  English  poets  who 


1  The  standard  life  of  Cooper  is  that  by  Professor  T.  R.  Lounsbury  in 
the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series  of  biographies. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        in 

were  his  contemporaries.     The  fact  that  the  greatest  of  .the 
English  critics,   Matthew  Arnold,   said  that  Bryant  was 


WILLIAM   CULLEN  BRYANT 


facile  princeps  among  American  poets  and  expressed  his 
approval    of    Hartley    Coleridge's    judgment    that   "To    a 


ii2  History  of  American  Literature 

Waterfowl "  was  the  best  short  poem  in  the  English  language, 
is  proof  enough  that  Bryant  was  at  that  early  time  recognized 
as  in  the  same  class  with  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and 
Southey.  We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  Bryant  is  in  any 
sense  as  great  a  poet  as  either  of  the  first  two  of  these,  but 
he  certainly  ranks  above  the  minor  poets,  where  Southey 
must  be  classed. 

His  precocity.  Bryant  was  born  November  3,  1794,  in 
Cummington,  a  town  in  the  Berkshire  Hills  of  western 
Massachusetts.  His  father,  Dr.  Peter  Bryant,  was  a  de 
scendant  of  good  Puritan  stock  from  the  days  of  the  first 
settlement  at  Plymouth;  and  his  mother,  Sarah  Snell,  was 
likewise  descended  from  a  famous  Puritan  family,  that  of 
John  and  Priscilla  Alden,  whom  Longfellow  has  immor 
talized  in  "The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish."  Dr.  Bryant 
was  a  cultured  man  and  an  ardent  Federalist,  and  he  took 
pains  to  educate  his  children  in  both  literary  and  political 
lines  after  his  own  ideals.  William  Cullen  Was  a  remarkably 
precocious  child.  It  is  authoritatively  stated  that  he 
learned  his  alphabet  at  sixteen  months,  wrote  poetry  at 
nine  years,  translated  Latin  verses  at  ten,  composed  political 
satires  at  thirteen,  and  wrote  the  first  draft  of  "Thana- 
topsis,"  which  has  since  been  recognized  as  an  American 
if  not  a  world  masterpiece,  before  he  was  seventeen.  It 
must  be  remembered  in  contemplating  this  last  marvelous 
performance,  however,  that  "  Thanatopsis "  had  frequent 
revisions  before  it  reached  its  present  final  form,  and  that 
the  finest  portions  of  the  poem  were  added  when  Bryant  had 
reached  his  twenty-seventh  year.  When  he  was  five  years 
old,  the  boy  was  sent  to  live  with  his  grandfather  Snell  in 
order  that  he  might  attend  school.  The  poet  himself  tells 
us  that  he  was  "almost  an  infallible  speller,"  and  one  of  the 
fleetest  runners  in  school.  His  precocity  made  it  seem 
profitable  to  give  him  a  college  education,  and  so  he  was 
sent  to  his  maternal  uncle  to  begin  the  study  of  Latin,  and 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        113 

then  to  the  Reverend  Moses  Hallock's  preparatory  school  at 
Plainfield  to  begin  Greek.  He  soon  mastered  both  these 
ancient  languages.  His  conquest  ef  the  difficult  Greek  was 
wonderfully  rapid,  for  he  tells  us  that  within  two  months 
from  the  time  he  began  with  the  Greek  alphabet  he  had 
read  through  the  New  Testament  in  the  original  and  was 
almost  as  familiar  with  it  as  with  the  English  translation. 
Usually  such  precocity  indicates  early  maturity  and  rapid 
decline  of  powers,  but  when  we  remember  that  Bryant 
retained  his  powers  through  a  long  and  active  journalistic 
life,  and  at  the  age  of  eighty  was  still  producing  excellent 
poetry,  we  are  all  the  more  astounded  at  this  recital  of  his 
early  development. 

His  young  manhood  and  marriage.  At  sixteen  Bryant 
entered  Williams  College  and  remained  one  year.  He  was 
disappointed  in  the  educational  advantages  offered  at 
Williams  College,  and  with  his  father's  consent  he  planned 
to  transfer  to  Yale  College  the  next  year.  When  the  time 
came  for  him  to  leave  for  Yale,  however,  his  father's  strait 
ened  finances  would  not  permit  of  further  college  training, 
and  Bryant  reluctantly  gave  up  his  cherished  ambition  and 
turned  to  the  study  of  law.  He  read  law  in  two  private 
offices,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815.  For  nine  years 
he  practiced  his  profession  diligently  but  not  enthusiastically, 
beginning  at  Plainfield  where  he  had  once  attended  school, 
but  shortly  afterwards  removing  to  Great  Barrington,  a 
more  promising  town  near  by.  Here  he  met  and  married 
Miss  Frances  Fairchild,  and  she  proved  to  be  what  he  called 
the  good  angel  of  his  life.  During  this  period  he  addressed 
several  poems  to  her,  but  preserved  only  one  of  them  in 
his  printed  volumes — "  Oh,  Fairest  of  the  Rural  Maids," 
which  Poe  called  "the  truest  poem  written  by  Bryant." 
Later  poems  touch  upon  his  beautiful  attachment  for  her,  such 
as  "The  Life  That  Is,"  which  celebrates  her  recovery  from 
an  illness,  and  "October,  1866,"  which  mourns  her  death. 


H4  History  of  American  Literature 

Bryant  as  an  editor.  It  was  in  1825  that  Bryant  finally 
gave  up  the  practice  of  law,  which  had  always  been  dis 
tasteful  to  him,  and  turned  to  journalism,  as  a  career.  He 
was  appointed  to  be  editor  of  a  monthly  literary  periodical 
called  The  New  York  Review.  After  a  short  and  checkered 
career  this  journal  was  merged  with  others,  and  Bryant 
became  assistant  editor  of  The  New  York  Evening  Post. 
Within  a  short  time  the  editor-in-chief  died,  and  Bryant 
was  promoted  to  this  position.  He  made  The  Evening  Post 
the  best  edited  newspaper  in  New  York,  and  he  soon  attained 
a  controlling  financial  interest  in  this  great  daily,  so  that  he 
was  from  this  time  on  a  comparatively  wealthy  man.  In 
his  youth,  under  the  tuition  and  inspiration  of  his  father, 
who  was  a  stanch  Federalist,  Bryant  had  written  and 
published  "The  Embargo,"  a  severe  satire  on  the  Democratic 
president,  Thomas  Jefferson.  It  seems  like  the  irony  of 
fate  that  he  should  become  in  later  life  the  editor  of  a 
paper  that  at  one  time  supported  the  Democratic  party. 
In  his  new  position  he  was  an  influential  spokesman  for 
high  political  and  moral  ideals,  and  he  became  quite  dis 
tinguished,  not  as  an  impassioned  orator,  but  as  a  maker  of 
elevated  and  finished  addresses  on  many  historic  and  literary 
occasions. 

His  visits  to  Europe.  Bryant  traveled  much  during  his 
later  years,  making  no  fewer  than  seven  visits  abroad. 
While  he  was  not  received  with  the  eclat  that  greeted  some 
of  our  later  literary  men  in  their  visits  to  Europe,  he  was 
everywhere  recognized  as  a  man  of  distinction,  and  he  had 
the  unfailing  good  taste  not  to  parade  his  own  social  success 
or  to  betray  the  hospitality  of  his  entertainers  by  writing 
about  them  in  his  letters.  He  contributed  travel  letters  to 
his  paper  during  these  trips,  and  afterwards  collected  the 
best  of  these  in  a  volume  called  Letters  of  a  Traveler. 

Bryant's  best  poems.  Bryant's  career  as  a  recognized  poet 
began  as  early  as  1817  with  his  father's  presentation  of 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        115 

"Thanatopsis"  and  "A  Fragment"  (later  called  "Inscription 
for  the  Entrance  to  a  Wood")  to  the  editors  of  The  North 
American  Review.  The  story  of  the  amazement  of  these 
men  at  the  character  of  the  verse,  —  no  such  poetry  having 
hitherto  been  produced  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic, — has 
been  frequently  told.  The  genesis  of  "To  a  Waterfowl," 
written  after  Bryant  observed  a  lone  mallard  flying  to  its 
rest  just  at  .sunset,  is  also  well  known.  In  "Thanatopsis" 
and  "To  a  Waterfowl"  Bryant  undoubtedly  reached  his 
highest  altitude  as  a  poet.  The  first  is  a  moralizing  blank 
verse  poem  on  the  theme  of  death  and  is  developed  with  a 
rich  nature  setting ;  the  second  is  a  nature  lyric  based  on  the 
solemn  religious  thought  that  the  providence  of  God  directs 
every  human  life.  Death  and  nature  were  the  two  themes 
that  most  frequently  attracted  the  poet's  muse,  and  we  may 
safely  affirm  that  no  other  American  poet  has  equaled  him 
in  his  treatment  of  these  solemn  and  inspiring  subjects. 
Though  Bryant  never  surpassed  these  early  efforts,  some 
critics  hold  that  he  sustained  the  reputation  made  in  his  early 
years,  even  when  he  became  an  octogenarian.  In  1821  he 
published  his  first  thin  volume  of  poems,  and  in  1832  a 
second  and  enlarged  edition  appeared,  the  most  notable  of 
the  additional  poems  being  "A  Forest  Hymn,"  "To  the 
Fringed  Gentian,"  "Song  of  Marion's  Men,"  and  "Death 
of  the  Flowers."  The  last  named  poem  opens  with  the 
familiar  lines, 

The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 

Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sere; 

and  closes  with  a  beautiful  tribute  to  his  beloved  sister,  who 
had  .died  in  the  autumn.  Other  editions  of  the  poems 
appeared  from  time  to  time,  and  by  1864  Bryant  had 
garnered  a  considerable  volume  of  poems,  though  he  was 
not  so  prolific  as  most  of  our  major  poets.  "The  Prairies, " 
a  poem  full  of  the  breadth  and  sweep  of  our  western  plains ; 


n6  History  of  American  Literature 

"The  Battlefield,"  in  which  occurs  the  most  frequently 
quoted  passage  in  all  his  poetry, 

Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again; 

Th'  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers; 
But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  in  pain, 

And  dies  among  his  worshipers; 

"Oh  Mother  of  a  Mighty  Race,"  a  patriotic  tribute  to 
America;  "Robert  of  Lincoln,"  an  imitative  bird  song 
entirely  different  in  tone  from  anything  else  Bryant  wrote; 
"Sella"  and  "The  Little  People  of  the  Snow,"  two  fairy 
pieces;  and  "The  Flood  of  Years, "  a  reversion  to  the  theme 
and  manner  of  "  Thanatopsis "  when  the  poet  was  eighty- 
two, — these  are  perhaps  the  best  of  his  later  productions. 

Bryant's  translations  of  the  "Iliad"  and  "Odyssey."  As 
a  relief  from  his  grief  over  the  death  of  his  wife  in  1866, 
Bryant  turned  to  the  translation  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey. 
He  had  previously  translated  some  portions  of  the  fifth 
book  of  the  Odyssey,  but  he  now  set  seriously  about  convert 
ing  the  whole  of  the  two  great  Homeric  epics  into  blank 
verse.  This  remarkable  achievement,  begun  when  he  was 
seventy- two  and  completed  when  he  was  seventy-seven, 
may  be  placed  with  Longfellow's  translation  of  Dante's 
Divina  Commedia  and  Bayard  Taylor's  of  Goethe's  Faust 
as  one  of  the  three  greatest  translations  produced  in 
America,  works  which  rank  high  among  the  best  of  this 
kind  in  all  English  literature. 

His  death  and  burial.  Bryant  died  on  June  12,  1878. 
During  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  was  many  times  called 
the  first  citizen  of  the  republic.  His  life  was  pure  and  noble, 
and  he  well  deserved  the  encomiums  that  were  spoken  and 
written  of  him  all  over  the  country.  He  was  undoubtedly 
a  great  and  good  man.  Nature,  whom  he  loved  so  well  and 
interpreted  so  beautifully,  had  made  him  one  of  her  own 
noblemen.  He  was  buried  at  Roslyn,  Long  Island,  where 
he  owned  an  estate  and  where  his  wife  was  buried  twelve 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        117 

years  before.  An  excellent  statue  ensconced  in  a  tasteful 
classic  arch  has  been  erected  to  the  poet's  memory  in  the 
New  York  Public  Library. 

General  critical  estimate  of  Bryant.  It  has  been  customary, 
since  Lowell's  criticism  of  Bryant  in  "A  Fable  for  Critics," 
to  speak  of  Bryant's  coldness  and  lack  of  passion.  It  is 
undoubtedly  true  that  there  is  a  lack  of  enthusiastic  passion 
or  demonstrative  sentiment  in  his  poetry,  but  it  would  be 
more  accurate  to  call  his  style  restrained  and  classic  than 
stiff  and  frigid.  Bryant  was  a  man  of  deep  feeling,  but  he 
was  naturally  reserved  in  disposition,  and  he  controlled  his 
feelings  with  that  perfect  poise,  self-restraint,  and  repose 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  classic  poets  at  their  best.  He 
was  a  devoted  son,  husband,  and  father,  a  loyal  friend,  and 
a  patriotic  citizen.  There  is  certainly  a  note  of  tender 
delicacy,  genuine  warmth,  and  deep  spirituality  in  much  of 
his  poetry.  Among  some  modern  critics,  too,  there  is  a 
tendency  to  belittle  Bryant's  poetical  genius  because  of  the 
evident  didacticism,  the  serious  ethical  purpose,  and  the 
melancholy  note  in  much  of  his  verse.  It  is  very  true  that 
these  elements  exist  in  his  poetry,  and  perhaps  to  the  modern 
artistic  temperament  there  is  a  too  patent  moral  note  and 
a  too  constant  melancholy  or  sober  tone  in  his  best  poems. 
But  this  was  the  natural  tendency  of  his  genius;  and  even 
if  the  range  of  his  muse  was  not  wide,  he  has  certainly  ex 
pressed  himself  well  in  his  chosen  domain.  None  of  our 
poets  has  better  expressed  the  fundamental  seriousness  and 
the  sober  delight  in  noble  ethical  ideals  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race,  and  we  may  safely  predict  that  the  best  of  Bryant's 
poetry,  as  represented  in  "Thanatopsis"  and  "To  a  Water 
fowl,"  will  be  read  long  after  much  that  is  now  held  in  high 
esteem  by  his  detractors  shall  have  passed  into  oblivion.1 

i  The  standard  life  of  Bryant  is  that  by  his  son-in-law,  Parke  Godwin. 
Two  more  recent  and  somewhat  briefer  studies  are  those  by  John  Bigelow 
in  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series  and  W.  A.  Bradley  in  the  English 
Men  of  Letters  Series. 


n8  History  of  American  Literature 

Walt  Whitman.  Walt  Whitman  (1819-1892),  "The 
Good  Gray  Poet,"  was  during  his  lifetime  a  literary  storm 
center,  and  even  yet  his  name  cannot  be  mentioned  in  any 
circle  of  readers  without  bringing  forth  both  a  paean  of 
praise  and  a  chorus  of  condemnation.  Some  one  has  called 
him  the  best  loved  and  the  best  hated  of  all  our  writers.  He 
had  a  desperately  hard  struggle  to  gain  a  hearing,  but  he 
persisted  with  a  supreme  and  undisturbed  patience  and  self- 
confidence,  and  triumphed  in  the  end.  As  time  goes  on, 
his  figure  looms  larger  and  larger 'on  the  literary  horizon, 
so  that  there  are  many  who  now  recognize  in  this  so-called 
sensual,  self-vaunting,  unlettered  hoodlum  of  Manhattan, 
the  one  universally  great  literary  genius  produced  by  Ameri 
can  democracy. 

Whitman  s  early  life.  Whitman  was  born  May  31,  1819, 
at  the  old  family  homestead,  West  Hills,  near  Huntington, 
Long  Island.  His  ancestors  were  of  the  simple,  unlettered 
farming  and  seafaring  classes,  and  made  little  pretension  to 
material  prosperity  or  social  standing.  Whitman  was 
always  unfeignedly  proud  of  his  humble  origin,  for  he. knew 
that  he  came  from  a  plain,  strong,  virile,  healthy,  American 
stock,  and  thus,  as  a  true  son  of  the  soil,  he  might  claim  to 
be  the  appointed  poet  of  democracy. 

Starting  from  fish-shape  Paumanok  where  I  was  born, 
Well-begotten,  and  raised  by  a  perfect  mother, 

he  says;  and  again, 

My  tongue,  every  atom  of  my  blood,  forrn'd  from  this  soil,  this  air, 
Born  here  of  parents  born  here,  from  parents  the  same,  and  their 
parents  the  same. 

In  this  old  home  on  Long  Island,  or  Paumanok,  as  he  loved 
to  call  it,  the  child  lived  until  he  was  four  years  old,  absorbing 
even  at  this  age  the  rural  sights  and  sounds,  the  vigor  and 
freshness  of  the  salt  sea  air,  and  the  power  and  constancy 


WALT  WHITMAN 


i2o  History  of  American  Literature 

of  the  ocean.  Truly  the  sea  was  "the  cradle  endlessly 
rocking"  for  this  child  of  Nature.  During  Walter's,  fifth 
year,  his  father  removed  to  Brooklyn  to  engage  in  the 
builder's  trade,  but  the  boy  still  had  free  access  to  the 
ancestral  home  and  to  the  wild  and  unfrequented  parts  of 
the  island.  There  are  hundreds  of  allusions  that  prove 
Whitman  to  have  been  much  more  of  a  country-bred  than 
a  city-bred  boy. 

The  period  of  Whitman's  self -development.  His  education 
in  the  public  schools  of  Brooklyn  closed  when  he  was  thirteen. 
He  began  now  to  help  earn  his  own  bread  by  working  in  a 
lawyer's  office  as  an  errand  boy.  He  soon  entered  upon  an 
apprenticeship  to  the  printer's  trade,  however,  and  until 
his  seventeenth  year  found  employment  in  various  capacities 
in  printing  establishments.  Then  for  two  or  three  years  he 
taught  country  schools  on  Long  Island,  boarding  around,  as 
was  the  custom,  and  familiarizing  himself  with  the  life  of 
the  common  people.  He  was  a  prime  favorite  with  old 
and  young,  playing  ball  with  the  boys  and  engaging  in  his 
favorite  sport  of  fishing  as  opportunity  afforded.  It  is  said 
that  he  succeeded  admirably  as  a  teacher,  using  a  sort  of 
oral  method  of  his  own  invention,  and  commanding  always 
the  respect  and  affection  of  his  pupils  and  patrons.  Then  he 
opened  a  printing  office  at  Huntington  and  founded  a  weekly 
paper,  The  Long  Islander.  His  success  in  this  venture  was 
not  pronounced,  and  the  paper  soon  changed  hands,  but  this 
was  the  beginning  of  his  career  as  a  journalist.  He  now 
contributed  sentimental  sketches  and  stories  to  some  of  the 
New  York  papers,  and  worked  in  a  desultory  sort  of  way  at 
his  trade  of  printing.  This  was  his  fallow  or  "loafing" 
period,  as  he  called  it.  He  was  studying  men  and  women 
in  real  life  with  all  the  intensity  and  constancy  of  application 
that  many  another  youth  puts  on  his  college  course.  The 
city  streets  and  the  country  lanes,  filled  with  all  sorts  and 
conditions  of  life,  were  Walt  Whitman's  university. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       121 

Period  of  further  development  through  travel  and  reading. 
Whitman  was  progressing  slowly  in  his  chosen  field  of  jour 
nalism,  and  in  1848  he  became  editor  of  The  Brooklyn  Eagle,  a 
daily  paper  of  some  importance.  About  this  time  a  gentle 
man  from  the  South  offered  him  an  editorial  position  on  a 
newly  founded  daily,  The  Crescent,  in  New  Orleans,  and 
Whitman  accepted  the  position  because  it  would  give  him  an 
opportunity  to  see  something  of  America.  With  his  younger 
brother  Jeff  he  made  a  leisurely  trip  down  the  Mississippi, 
learning  much  from  these  new  sights  and  experiences.  He 
did  not  remain  long  in  the  South,  and  we  find  him  again 
making  a  leisurely  working  tour  back  to  New  York  and 
Brooklyn  by  way  of  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Niagara,  and 
Albany.  On  this  journey  of  eight  thousand  miles  he  was 
formulating  some  conception  of  the  sweep  and  grandeur  of 
the  land  he  loved  and  was  to  sing  so  well.  He  was  still  taking 
life  easy,  still  in  his  fallow  period.  "I  loaf  and  invite  my 
soul,"  he  wrote  later  in  the  "Song  of  Myself."  He  worked 
but  little  at  his  regular  business,  but  spent  many  hours  in 
loitering  around  the  streets,  riding  on  the  tops  of  cabs, 
talking  and  consorting  with  all  sorts  and  types  of  people, 
taking  long  solitary  walks  in  the  woods  and  swims  in  the 
Sound,  and  letting  his  imagination  brood  over  all.  Besides, 
he  was  doing  much  serious  reading  of  the  Bible,  £>hakespeare, 
and  other  English  and  classical  writers. 

"Leaves  of  Grass."  Whitman's  real  ambition  to  become 
a  poet  was  slowly  ripening,  and  with  a  kind  of  solitary 
persistence  he  kept  brooding  over  his  mission  and  working 
surely,  steadily,  unobtrusively  into  that  style  which  he 
afterwards  flashed  upon  the  world  as  a  new  and  original 
type  of  poetry.  In  1855,  set  up  and  printed  largely  by 
himself  in  the  office  of  some  friends,  appeared  the  first  edition 
of  Leaves  of  Grass,  the  strangest,  most  misunderstood,  most 
maligned  book  that  ever  came  from  the  American  press. 
It  was  like  Carlyle's  Sartor  Resartus  in  England,  a  work  of 

9 


122  History  of  American  Literature 

genius,  hooted  and  hissed  and  misinterpreted  until  some 
knowing  ones  expounded  the  riddle.  Leaves  of  Grass  was 
written  in  a  kind  of  unrimed  free  verse,  with  lines  of  from 
four  or  five  to  sixty  or  even  seventy  syllables  arranged  in  a 
sort  of  phrasal  rhythm  to  suit  the  ear  or  the  caprice  of  the 
author.  Whether  it  is  verse  or  rhythmical  prose  is  still 
debated.  It  is  certain  that  there  is  no  other  verse  like  it, 
and  it  is  also  certain  that  the  long  prose  preface  is  almost 
as  rhythmical  as  any  other  part  of  the  book.  'Whitman 
himself  admitted  much  later,  when  some  of  the  earlier  faults 
had  been  removed,  that  he  consciously  threw  out  all  the 
conventional  machinery  of  verse,  "the  entire  stock  in  trade  of 
rhyme-talking  heroes  and  heroines  and  all  the  love-sick 
plots  of  customary  poetry."  He  constructed  his  verse  "in 
a  loose  and  free  metre  of  his  own,  of  an  irregular  length  of 
lines,  apparently  lawless  at  first  perusal,  although  on  a  closer 
examination  a  certain  regularity  appears,  like  the  recur 
rence  of  lesser  and  larger  waves  on  the  seashore,  rolling 
in  without  intermission,  and  fitfully  rising  and  falling." 
Readers  have  almost  universally  testified  that  Whitman's 
verse  seems  most  like  real  poetry  when  read  aloud  out-of- 
doors,  and  particularly  under  the  waving  trees  or  by  the 
throbbing  sea,  with  the  drift  of  clouds  and  the  swoop  of 
sea-birds  ov^r  heaoSv  His  whole  aim  was  to  be  himself  and 
no  other,  to  be  original  and  no  imitator,  to  be  the  spokes 
man  of  his  own  soul  and  of  democratic  America,  and 
not  an  echo  of  the  dead  muses  of  other  times  and  other 
nations. 

How  "Leaves  of  Grass"  was  received.  Whitman  succeeded 
in  his  aim  —  succeeded  so  well  in  writing  an  entirely  new 
book  that  when  it  appeared  it  was  called  "the  work  of  some 
escaped  lunatic, "  and  the  author  was  belabored  as  one  whose 
soul  was  the  reincarnation  of  "a  donkey  who  died  of  dis 
appointed  love."  Lowell  could  never  overcome  his  disgust 
for  the  author  of  Leaves  of  Grass  (1855) ;  Whittier  threw  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        123 

book  into  the  fire  when  he  read  it :  but  Emerson  saw  in  it  dis 
tinct  evidences  of  genius  and  wrote  the  author  a  letter  which 
has  been  frequently  reprinted.  This  letter  was  the  first  note 
of  authoritative  recognition  which  Whitman  received  and  the 
impetus  from  which  his  fame  has  grown.  In  it  Emerson 
said  in  part:  "I  find  it  [Leaves  of  Grass]  the  most  extraor 
dinary  piece  of  wit  and  wisdom  that  America  has  yet 
contributed.  ...  I  give  you  joy  of  your  free  and  brave 
thought.  I  have  great  joy  in  it.  I  find  incomparable 
things  said  incomparably  well,  as  they  must  be.  I  find  the 
courage  of  treatment  which  so  delights  us,  and  which  large 
perception  only  can  inspire.  I  greet  you  at  the  beginning 
of  a  great  career,  which  yet  must  have  had  a  long  fore 
ground  somewhere  for  such  a  start.  ...  It  has  the  best 
merits,  namely  of  fortifying  and  encouraging." 

Other  editions  of  (t  Leaves  of  Grass."  The  next  year  the 
second  and  greatly  enlarged  edition  of  Leaves  of  Grass 
appeared  with  appended  additional  matter  containing 
Emerson's  letter  and  Whitman's  long  reply.  In  spite  of 
Emerson's  generous  recognition  of  a  new  light,  the  book  did 
not  sell.  In  England  the  recognition  was  more  spontaneous, 
though  not  enough  interest  was  manifested  greatly  to  encour 
age  the  new  poet.  But  Whitman  needed  no  encouragement 
— at  least  he  was  not  to  be  daunted  by  discouragement. 
He  had  determined  to  have  his  own  way,  and  neither  praise 
nor  blame,  encouragement  nor  discouragement  seemed  to 
deflect  him  in  the  least  from  his  purpose.  Years  later  he 
wrote,  "The  best  comfort  of  the  whole  business.  ...  is 
that  unstopp'd  and  unwarp'd  by  any  influence  outside  the 
soul  within  me,  I  have  had  my  say  entirely  in  my  own  way 
.and  put  it  unerringly  on  record — the  value  thereof  to  be 
decided  by  time."  He  did  not  bid  for  "soft  eulogies,  big 
money  returns,  nor  the  approbation  of  existing  schools  and 
conventions";  and  so  he  moved  on  his  way  unruffled  and 
undisturbed.  The  third  edition  of  his  book  appeared  in 


124  History  of  American  Literature 

1860  with  many  changes  and  additions,  as  was  his  custom; 
and  in  1891  the  tenth  and  last  edition  of  this  remarkable 
poetic  evolution  was  prepared  by  the  poet,  some  of  it  passing 
through  his  hands  even  after  he  had  taken  to  his  bed  for  the 
last  time. 

Whitman  as  a  hospital  nurse  during  the  war.  The  Civil 
War  was  the  culminating  experience  in  Walt  Whitman's 
education  as  the  poet  of  democracy.  He  did  not  volunteer 
for  active  service,  but  his  brother  George  did,  and  when 
Walt  heard  that  George  was  wounded  and  in  a  hospital  in 
Virginia  he  went  to  the  front.  Finding  his  brother  already 
recovered,  but  thousands  of  others  in  the  hospitals  needing 
comfort  and  aid,  he  became  a  volunteer  nurse  in  and  around 
Washington.  It  is  said  that  he  literally  came  into  touch 
with  thousands  of  soldiers  while  on  his  rounds,  and  served 
them  all  alike,  whether  Northern  or  Southern,  high  or 
low,  deserving  or  undeserving,  with  an  unswerving  and  all- 
encompassing  devotion.  He  was  a  strong,  clean,  healthy, 
magnetic  specimen  of  manhood;  and  his  very  presence 
seemed  a  benediction  and  a  curative  power  to  the  sick  and 
wounded  soldiers. 

Employment  in  Washington  City:  "The  Good  Gray  Poet.11 
After  the  war  Whitman  was  given  a  clerkship  in  the  Depart 
ment  of  the  Interior,  and  later  he  was  transferred  to  the 
Attorney-General's  department.  It  was  about  this  time 
that  W.  D.  O'Connor,  an  over-enthusiastic  admirer  of 
Whitman,  published  a  pamphlet  defending  the  poet  from 
certain  attacks  made  on  him,  and  from  the  title  of  this 
pamphlet  Whitman  became  familiarly  known  as  "The  Good 
Gray  Poet." 

11  Drum  Taps11:  his  broken  health.  It  was  just  at  the 
close  of  the  Civil  War  that  Whitman  published  a  new  volume 
of  poems  called  Drum  Taps,  and  when  the  volume  was  going 
through  the  press  he  composed  four  poems  which  he  called 
"Memorials  for  President  Lincoln,"  and  added  them  as  a 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       125 

supplement.  This  supplement  contains  some  of  Whitman's 
very  finest  work,  notably  the  threnody  "When  Lilacs  Last 
in  the  Dooryard  Bloom'd"  and  the  lyric  lament  "  O  Captain ! 
My  Captain!"  From  time  to  time  other  poems  and  prose 
pieces  came  out,  but  Whitman's  health  was  now  rapidly 
failing,  and  in  1873  ne  suffered  a  paralytic  stroke  and  had 
to  give  up  his  position  in  Washington.  He  went  to  Cam- 
den,  New  Jersey,  and  lived  with  his  brother  for  a  few  years 
until  he  partially  recovered  his  health.  During  the  remain 
der  of  his  life  he  lectured  occasionally  on  Lincoln,  made 
journeys  to  the  far  West  and  to  Canada,  and  was  the  recip 
ient  of  many  visits  from  friends  and  admirers.  His  books 
now  brought  him  in  some  money,  and  he  was  enabled  to 
buy  a  modest  little  hon;e  at  Camden.  Here,  even  though 
broken  in  health,  he  spent  his  last  days  in  quiet.  He  had 
what  he  most  craved,  the  comradeship  and  good-fellowship 
of  those  who  understood  and  loved  him.  In  1888  he  suffered 
the  second  stroke  of  paralysis,  and  from  this  time  until  his 
death,  March  26,  1892,  he  was  practically  a  helpless  invalid. 
But  up  to  the  very  last  he  retained  his  buoyancy  of  spirit 
and  alertness  of  mind. 

Whitman's  message  and  personality.  As  to  Whitman's 
message  in  his  poetry,  his  great  themes  were  selfhood,  com 
radeship,  love,  joy,  nature,  God,  immortality,  death,  and 
above  all  democracy  as  exemplified  in  the  American  states. 
Edward  Holmes  analyzes  Whitman  as  being,  intensely  emo 
tional,  intensely  self-conscious,  intensely  optimistic,  and 
intensely  American.  We  might  add  to  this  the  one  all- 
inclusive  characteristic,  and  say  he  was  intensely  human. 
No  one  ever  lived  who  was  more  truly,  more  unmistakably 
a  man.  Lincoln's  remark  squares  with  every  atom  of 
his  being:  "Well,  he  looks  like  a  man!"  The  only  serious 
weakness  to  be  observed  in  his  poetical  output  is  that 
it  is  not  always  inspired.  Wordsworth  defined  poetry  as 
"the  spontaneous  overflow  of  powerful  emotion  recollected 


126  History  of  American  Literature 

in  tranquillity."  Whitman's  poetry  seems  spontaneous 
enough,  but  it  does  not  always  express  powerful  emotion. 
Like  Wordsworth,  he  was  rather  self-conscious:  he  imagined 
that  everything  he  felt  and  saw  and  thought  or  dreamed  was 
worthy  of  preservation.  And  so,  like  Wordsworth  again, 
he  sometimes  reaches  banality  instead  of  inspiration.  The 
logical  evolution  of. some  of  his  poems  is  vague  or  even 
totally  indistinguishable.  He  injects  topics  that  seem 
utterly  foreign  to  his  purpose,  and  gives  long  catalogues 
of  names  and  conglomerate  masses  of  facts  that  can  only  be 
properly  designated  by  the  term  "balderdash." 

Whitman's  rank  and  influence.  And  yet  when  we  look  back 
on  Whitman,  now  that  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century 
has  passed  since  his  death,  we  can  begin  to  place  him  in 
his  true  historic  perspective.  There  is  no  doubt  that  he 
was  one  of  the  largest-brained,  biggest-hearted  men  of  his 
century.  He  had  little  or  no  formal  education;  and  yet 
without  model  or  foreign  influence,  when  he  felt  the  stirrings 
of  genius  within  him  he  made  his  own  instrument  of  expres 
sion  merely  by  the  rule  of  doing  it.  We  may  say  that  Walt 
Whitman  was  a  born  poetical  genius  who  found  his  own 
unique,  original  vehicle  of  expression  at  thirty-five,  and  tried 
to  perfect  himself  in  it  by  inflicting  it  on  an  unprepared 
public  for  the  next  thirty-five  years.  Whitman  is  not  a 
broadly  popular  poet  and  perhaps  never  will  be,  for  his 
work  as  a  whole  offers  too  strong  a  meat  and  is  too  funda 
mental  and  cosmic  for  the  general  public.  But  he  has  pro 
foundly  influenced  many  of  our  later  writers;  in  fact,  he 
may  be  placed  next  to  Emerson  in  his  power  of  stimulating 
other  minds.  There  is  no  longer  any  question  as  to  his 
genius  or,  in  spite  of  his  frequent  coarseness  and  vulgarity, 
as  to  the  elemental  purity  and  goodness  of  his  nature.1 

1  Among  the  many  lives  of  Whitman,  perhaps  the  best  for  general  use  are 
those  by  Bliss  Perr^in  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series  and  by  George  R. 
Carpenter  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series.  Two  other  sympathetic 
books  should  be  consulted,  the  studies  by  John  Addington  Symonds  (English) 
and  John  Burroughs  (American). 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       127 

THE  'MINOR  NEW  YORK  AND  MIDDLE  ATLANTIC 
STATES  POETS 

The  grouping  of  the  minor  poets.  Besides  Bryant  and 
Whitman  who  are  treated  above  as  major  New  York 
poets,  there  are  three  minor  poets  who  are  usually  classed 
as  Knickerbocker  poets, — namely,  Fitz-Greene  Halleck, 
Joseph  Rodman  Drake,  and  Nathaniel  Parker  Willis. 
Following  these  in  the  latter  half  of  the  century  come  two 
comparatively  important  poets  and  prose  writers,  Bayard 
Taylor  and  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman.  Finally,  Richard 
Hovey  may  be  singled  out  as  a  representative  figure  among 
the  younger  poets  who  made  the  city  of  New  York  their 
residence  during  the  later  years  of  the  century.  These, 
with  other  song  writers  and  minor  poets,  comprise  the  list 
of  the  most  important  verse  makers  of  the  New  York  and 
Middle  Atlantic  States  group. 

Halleck  and  Drake:  "The  Croakers."  Fitz-Greene 
Halleck  (1790-1867)  was  born  in  Connecticut,  but  came 
to  New  York  in  his  twenty-second  year  to  enter  business. 
He  had  secured  a  fairly  good  education  in  his  youth  and  had 
taught  school  in  New  England  a  year  or  two  before  he 
removed  to  New  York.  He  was  intensely  interested  in  the 
new  poetry  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  as  it  appeared 
under  the  democratic  and  romantic  impulses  which  swept 
over  England.  Thomas  Campbell  and  Lord  Byron  were 
his  especial  favorites  at  the  time  he  met  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake  (1795-1820),  a  young  New  York  physician.  The 
two  writers  have  become  inseparably  associated  in  literature 
because  they  wrote  together  some  playful  satires  in  a  series 
of  light  verses  which  they  published  during  a  period  of 
three  months  in  1819,  mainly  in  The  New  York  Evening  Post, 
under  the  signature  of  "The  Croakers,"  or  "Croaker  and 
Company." 

Drake's  "The  Culprit  Fay."  Drake  was  attacked  by 
consumption  and  died  at  the  early  age  of  twenty-five.  He 


128  History  of  American  Literature 

left  in  manuscript  a  romantic  poem  called  "The  Culprit 
Fay,"  a  remarkable  piece  of  work  dashed  off  in  the  brief 
space  of  three  days  during  the  summer  of  1816,  but  not 
published  until  several  years  after  his  death.  It  is  the 
story  of  a  fairy  knight  who  fell  in  love  with  a  mortal  maiden 
and  was  doomed  to  suffer  various  penalties  because  of  this 
breaking  of  fairy  law.  The  poem  is  an  unusual  production 
for  so  young  a  man,  for  Drake  was  only  twenty-one  when 
he  wrote  it.  Because  of  its  lack  of  the  careful  organization, 
the  well  defined  evolution  that  art  demands  of  long  imag 
inative  poems  of  its  kind,  "The  Culprit  Fay"  is  not  of  any 
great  permanent  value.  It  is  full  of  pleasing  fanciful 
descriptions,  however,  and  it  has  a  decidedly  attractive  lilt 
in  its  rhythm.  Also  in  its  aim  to  people  the  American  woods 
and  streams  with  a  company  of  fairies  and  to  create  a  native 
supernatural  background,  the  poem  is  distinctly  noteworthy. 
The  influence  of  English  fairy  lore,  such  as  is  found  in  Shake 
speare's  and  Herrick's  descriptions  of  Queen  Mab  and  her 
court,  and  in  Coleridge's  " Christ abel,"  is  easily  discernible; 
but  despite  these  evidences  of  foreign  influence  Drake  shows 
considerable  originality  and  great  promise  in  this  fanciful 
field  of  fairyland. 

"  The  American  Flag. "  One  other  poem  by  Drake  is  still 
frequently  read, — namely,  his  intensely  patriotic  lyric, 
"The  American  Flag."  This  song,  though  unfortunately 
not  set  to  a  popular  tune,  should  be  classed  with  Timothy 
Dwight's  "Columbia,"  Francis  Hopkinson's  "Hail,  Colum 
bia,  "  and  Francis  Scott  Key's  "The  Star-Spangled  Banner, " 
as  one  of  the  choicest  of  our  patriotic  lyrics.  The  note 
worthy  fact  about  this  poem  is  that  it  was  not  written  in 
any  period  of  war  or  unusual  political  excitement,  being 
first  published  as  one  of  the  "Croaker"  papers  in  1819, 
and  hence  it  is  universal  in  its  appeal  to  Americans  and 
is  appropriate  to  any  period  of  our  history.  The  lyric 
is  given  here  in  full. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       129 

THE  AMERICAN   FLAG 

i 
When  Freedom  from  her  mountain  height 

Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air, 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night, 

And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 
She  mingled  with  its  gorgeous  dyes 
The  milky  baldric  of  the  skies, 
And  striped  its  pure  celestial  white, 
With  streakings  of  the  morning  light; 
Then  from  his  mansion  in  the  sun 
She  called  her  eagle  bearer  down, 
And  gave  into  his  mighty  hand, 
The  symbol  of  her  chosen  land. 


Majestic  monarch  of  the  cloud, 

Who  rear'st  aloft  thy  regal  form, 
To  hear  the  tempest  trumpings  loud 
And  see  the  lightning  lances  driven, 

When  strive  the  warriors  of  the  storm, 
And  rolls  the  thunder-drum  of  heaven, 
Child  of  the  sun!   to  thee  't  is  given 

To  guard  the  banner  of  the  free, 
To  hover  in  the  sulphur  smoke, 
And  bid  its  blendings  shine  afar, 
Like  rainbows  of  the  cloud  of  war, 

The  harbingers  of  victory! 

in 

Flag  of  the  brave!   thy  folds  shall  fly, 
The  sign  of  hope  and  triumph  high, 
When  speaks  the  signal  trumpet  tone, 
And  the  long  line  comes  gleaming  on. 
Ere  yet  the  life-blood,  warm  and  wet, 
Has  dimm'd  the  glistening  bayonet, 
Each  soldier  eye  shall  brightly  turn 
To  where  thy  sky-born  glories  burn, 
And  as  his  springing  steps  advance, 
Catch  war  and  vengeance  from  the  glance. 
And  when  the  cannon-mouthings  loud 
Heave  in  wild  wreaths  the  battle  shroud, 


130  History  of  American  Literature 

And  gory  sabres  rise  and  fall 

Like  shoots  of  flame  on  midnight's  pall; 

Then  shall  thy  meteor  glances  glow, 

And  cowering  foes  shall  shrink  beneath 
Each  gallant  arm  that  strikes  below 

That  lovely  messenger  of  death. 

IV 

Flag  of  the  seas !   on  ocean  wave 
Thy  stars  shall  glitter  o'er  the  brave; 
When  death,  careering  on  the  gale, 
Sweeps  darkly  round  the  bellied  sail, 
And  frighted  waves  rush  wildly  back 
Before  the  broadside's  reeling  rack, 
Each  dying  wanderer  of  the  sea 
Shall  look  at  once  to  heaven  and  thee, 
And  smile  to  see  thy  splendours  fly 
In  triumph  o'er  his  closing  eye. 

v 

Flag  of  the  free  heart's  hope  and  home, 

By  angel  hands  to  valour  given; 
Thy  stars  have  lit  the  welkin  dome, 

And  all  thy  hues  were  born  in  heaven. 
Forever  float  that  standard  sheet ! 

Where  breathes  the  foe  but  falls  before  us, 
With  Freedom's  soil  beneath  our  feet, 

And  Freedom's  banner  streaming  o'er  us? 

Halleck' s  popular  poems.  Though  Drake  seemed  to 
give  more  promise  of  developing  into  a  first-rate  poet, 
Halleck  lived  longer  and  reached  a  wider  popular  audience. 
His  best  known  lyric  is  the  lament  he  wrote  upon  the  death 
of  his  dear  friend  Drake,  the  first  stanza  of  which  remains 
familiar  through  popular  quotation: 

Green  be  the  turf  above  thee, 

Friend  of  my  better  days; 
None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee, 

None  named  thee  but  to  praise. 

One  other  piece  by  Halleck,  well  known  because  it  was 
formerly  extremely  popular  as  a  declamation,  is  his  "Marco 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       131 

Bozzaris, "  a  patriotic  narrative  poem  dealing  with  the 
Greek  struggle  to  throw  off  the  hated  sovereignty  of  Turkey. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  Byron — who,  by  the  way, 
exerted  a  strong  influence  on  Halleck,  as  is  evidenced  both 
by  the  quality  of  "Marco  Bozzaris"  and  by  Halleck's  long 
poem  "Fanny,"  a  satire  on  New  York  society  written  in 
imitation  of  Byron's  "  Don  Juan, " — lost  hislife  in  his  efforts 
to  aid  the  Greek  patriots.  "Marco  Bozzaris"  opens  with 
the  lines: 

At  midnight,  in  his  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming  of  the  hour 
When  Greece,  her  knee  in  suppliance  bent, 

Should  tremble  at  his  power; 

contains  in  its  climax  the  fiery  lines, 

Strike — till  the  last  armed  foe  expires! 
Strike — for  your  altars  and  your  fires! 
Strike — for  the  green  graves  of  your  sires, 
God,  and  your  native  land! 

and  concludes,  after  the  death  of  the  hero,  with  the  often 
quoted  passage, 

For  thou  art  Freedom's  now  and  Fame's,    • 
One  of  the  few,  the  immortal  names 
That  were  not  born  to  die. 

N.  P.  Willis.  Nathaniel  Parker  Willis  (1806-1867)  belongs 
to  that  group  of  authors  who  enjoy  wide  popularity  in 
their  lifetime  only  to  be  speedily  neglected  or  forgotten 
by  posterity.  He  was  born  in  Portland,  Maine,  was  edu 
cated  at  Yale,  and  started  his  journalistic  career  in  Boston; 
but  he  early  came  to  New  York  to  become  one  of  the  editors 
of  The  New  York  Mirror;  and  through  this  periodical  and 
other  New  York  literary  journals  he  built  up  his  wide  influ 
ence  and  reputation  as  a  poet,  critic,  and  writer  of  tales, 
sketches,  and  travel  pictures.  He  also  wrote  one  novel,  two 


132  History  of  American  Literature 

dramas,  and  several  ambitious  longer  poems.  His  early 
poems  were  mostly  on  Bible  subjects,  as  represented  by 
"  David's  Lament  for  Absalom, "  "Hagar  in  the  Wilderness, " 
and  "Jephtha's  Daughter,"  and  these  naturally  gave  Willis 
a  wide  vogue  among  the  ultra-religious  Americans  of  his 
day.  But  posterity  has  almost  entirely  neglected  all  that 
he  wrote  except  one  chance  lyric  called  " Unseen  Spirits," 
which  Poe  called  the  best  of  Willis's  productions.  Willis 
possessed  a  charming  personality  and  was  a  genial  patron  of 
literature.  He  deserves  to  be  remembered  for  the  encour 
agement  he  offered  to  young  American  writers  and  for  the 
impetus  he  gave  to  the  appreciation  of  good  literature 
among  all  classes. 

Bayard  Taylor:  his  poetry.  Another  poet  of  the  middle 
states  to  be  remembered  as  one  who  rose  almost  to  the 
first  rank  of  creative  writers  and  certainly  to  the  first  rank 
of  poetical  translators  is  Bayard  Taylor  (1825-1878).  He 
was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  and  began  at  an  early  age  to 
compose  verse,  a  volume  of  which  he  published  before  he 
was  twenty.  Being  possessed  of  a  strong  desire  to  go  abroad, 
he  undertook,  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  practically  without 
money,  to  travel  on  foot  throughout  Europe.  His  news 
paper  travel  letters  were  so  well  received  that  he  published 
a  volume  of  them  in  1846  under  the  title  of  Views  Afoot. 
This  book  gave  him  a  considerable  reputation  as  a  pleasing 
prose  stylist,  and  he  was  in  consequence  employed  as  a 
member  of  the  staff  of  The  New  York  Tribune.  He  later 
traveled  practically  all  over  the  eastern  world,  writing  long 
descriptive  letters,  many  of  which  he  afterwards  collected 
into  books.  The  best  of  his  original  poetry,  perhaps,  is  that 
inspired  by  the  Orient;  most  of  this  he  gathered  together 
in  the  volume  entitled  Poems  of  the  Orient  (1854).  The 
passionate  "Bedouin  Song, "  the  most  noteworthy  of  Taylor's 
shorter  poems,  is  worthy  of  complete  quotation  as  an 
example  of  his  lyric  gift  at  its  best. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       133 

BEDOUIN   SONG 
From  the  Desert  I  come  to  thee 

On  a  stallion  shod  with  fire; 
And  the  winds  are  left  behind 

In  the  speed  of  my  desire. 
Under  thy  window  I  stand, 

And  the  midnight  hears  my  cry: 
I  love  thee!     I  love  but  thee, 
With  a  love  that  shall  not  die 
Till  the  sun  grows  cold, 
A  nd  the  stars  are  old, 
A  nd  the  leaves  of  the  Judgment  Book  unfold! 

Look  from  thy  window  and  see 

My  passion  and  my  pain; 
I  He  on  the  sands  below, 

And  I  faint  in  thy  disdain. 
Let  the  night-winds  touch  thy  brow 

With  the  heat  of  my  burning  sigh, 
And  melt  thee  to  hear  the  vow 

Of  a  love  that  shall  not  die 
Till  the  sun  grows  cold, 
And  the  stars  are  old, 
And  the  leaves  of  the  Judgment  Book  unfold! 

My  steps  are  nightly  driven, 

By  the  fever  in  my  breast, 
To  hear  from  thy  lattice  breathed 

The  word  that  shall  give  me  rest. 
Open  the  door  of  thy  heart, 

And  open  thy  chamber  door, 
And  my  kisses  shall  teach  thy  lips 

The  love  that  shall  fade  no  more 
Till  the  sun  grows  cold, 
And  the  stars  are  old, 

And  the  leaves  of  the  Judgment  Book  unfold! 

His  translation  of  Faust.  Taylor  was  a  most  industrious 
writer  of  books,  publishing  some  thirty-five  or  more  volumes 
of  varied  character  during  his  active  career  as  poet,  journal 
ist,  and  professional  traveler;  but  he  wrote  too  much  and  too 


134  History  of  American  Literature 

fast  to  meet  the  severe  demands  of  permanent  literature. 
Perhaps  his  most  signal  service  to  English  literature  is  his 
well  known  metrical  translation  of  the  great  German  master 
piece  of  the  nineteenth  century, — namely,  Goethe's  Faust. 
He  had  been  strongly  attracted  to  the  German  language 
even  from  his  early  youth,  and  after  his  travels  in  Germany, 
his  extensive  study  of  German  literature  at  first  hand,  and 
his  marriage  to  Marie  Hansen,  the  daughter  of  a  German 
astronomer,  he  undertook,  with  a  high  sense  of  the  serious 
ness  and  importance  of  his  task,  to  translate  into  English 
the  greatest  of  all  German  poems.  It  is  generally  recog 
nized  that  Taylor's  is  the  best  metrical  rendering  of  Faust 
into  English  that  has  yet  been  made. 

Edmund  Clarence  Stedman.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether 
Edmund  Clarence  Stedman  (1833-1908)  deserves  higher 
praise  as  a  critic  of  poetry  or  as  a  poet.  He  had  a  rather 
odd  career  for  a  literary  man  of  any  type.  He  was  dis 
missed  from  Yale  because  of  some  wild  pranks.  He  then 
wandered  about,  becoming  in  succession  the  editor  of  several 
country  newspapers.  He  traveled  around  selling  clocks, 
and  then  became  a  real  estate  broker  in  New  York,  where 
he  won  some  notice  by  his  lively  poetical  contributions  to 
The  New  York  Tribune.  He  acted  as  a  reporter  for  several 
New  York  dailies,  went  to  the  front  as  a  war  correspondent 
during  the  Civil  War,  obtained  a  government  clerkship  in 
the  department  of  the  Attorney-General  at  Washington, 
and  finally  gave  up  this  position  to  return  to  New  York. 
He  later  secured  a  seat  on  the  New  York  Exchange  and  held 
it  until  1900,  at  which  time  he  retired  from  business  to  devote 
his  last  years  entirely  to  literature.  During  all  these  years 
of  active  business  life  he  had  never  given  up  his  study  of 
literature  or  the  production  of  original  poetry.  He  was 
a  persistent  reader  of  American  and  Victorian  poetry,  and 
his  services  to  literature  in  his  generous  appreciation  of 
many  younger  authors,  in  his  own  creative  work,  and  in  his 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        135 

efforts  in  behalf  of  the  cause  of  international  copyright  should 
give  him  the  right  to  honorable  mention  in  any  history  of 
our  literature. 

Stedman  as  a  poet.  Stedman  began  writing  verse  while 
he  was  in  college,  winning  a  prize  at  Yale  with  his  poem 
"Westminster  Abbey."  He  wrote  many  poems  on  the 
stirring  events  of  his  time,  notably  his  patriotic  lyrics  on 
John  Brown  and  on  Abraham  Lincoln.  He  boldly  included 
fifteen  of  his  poems  in  his  American  Anthology,  and  his 
collected  volume  equals  in  bulk  the  work  of  most  of  the 
other  American  poets.  Still  there  are  none  of  his  poems  that 
may  be  classed  among  the  permanent  masterpieces  of  our 
literature.  His  "Pan  in  Wall  Street "  shows  how  the  appeal 
of  pastoral  music  came  to  him  in  the  midst  of  his  business 
career,  but  it  also  indicates  that  poetry  is  a  jealous  and 
severe  mistress,  and  that  no  one  who  allows  any  large  part 
of  his  energy  to  be  absorbed  in  business  can  hope  to  rise  to  a 
position  of  great  eminence  in  the  arts. 

Stedman  as  a  critic.  Doubtless  Stedman  will  be  longer 
remembered  as  a  critic  than  as  a  poet.  Among  his  antholo 
gies  and  critical  productions  should  be  mentioned  first  of 
all  A  Library  of  American  Literature  (1888),  a  standard 
reference  work  in  eleven  volumes  edited  by  Stedman  in 
collaboration  with  Miss  Ellen  M.  Hutchinson;  and  next 
to  this  ambitious  anthology  should  be  mentioned  A  Victorian 
Anthology  (1895)  and. An  American  Anthology  (1901),  both 
standard  poetical  anthologies.  Victorian  Poets  (1875)  and 
Poets  of  America  (1885)  are  two  of  the  most  dependable, 
incisive,  and  stimulating  critical  works  in  our  literature; 
and  The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry  (1892),  a  series  of 
lectures  delivered  at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  contains  a 
great  deal  of  informing  and  suggestive  criticism  for  the 
student  of  poetry.  Practically  all  general  libraries  which 
make  any  pretension  to  completeness  possess  some  or  all  of 
these  books. 


136  History  of  American  Literature 

Richard  Hovey.  Though  born  in  Illinois,  Richard  Hovey 
(1864-1900)  belongs  by  training  and  residence  to  the  East, 
and  since  the  better  part  of  his  work  was  done  after  he 
became  a  teacher  of  English  literature  at  Barnard  College 
and  Columbia  University,  we  may  place  him  in  the  New 
York  group.  He  prepared  himself  for  the  ministry,  but 
turned  to  newspaper  work  and  the  stage,  and  finally  to 
teaching.  He  was  the  most  aspiring  of  all  our  younger 
poets,  though  his  achievement  was  cut  short  by  an  early 
death.  He  attempted  to  rival  the  greatest  poets  both  in 
choice  of  subjects  and  in  treatment.  He  wrote  Greek  odes, 
Arcadian  lyrics,  stirring  patriotic  hymns,  and  many  occa 
sional  poems;  he  dared  to  add  a  new  canto  to  Byron's  "  Don 
Juan";  he  entered  Tennyson's  field  of  Arthurian  legends 
and  planned  a  series  of  nine  dramatic  poems,  which,  had  he 
lived  to  complete  them — though  they  are  cast  in  a  dif 
ferent  form  from  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King — might 
have  challenged  comparison  with  the  greater  poet's  work. 
Besides  publishing  three  successive  volumes  of  Songs  from 
Vagabondia  (1894-1896-1900),  written  in  collaboration  with 
his  friend  Bliss  Carman,  the  Canadian  poet,  and  two  other 
books  of  lyric  verse,  Along  the  Trail,  a  Book  of  Lyrics  (1898) 
and  To  the  End  of  the  Trail  (1908),  Hovey  completed  four 
of  the  nine  dramas  planned  to  be  included  under  the  general 
title  Launcelot  and  Guenevere;  a  Poem  in  Dramas.  These 
were  "The  Quest  of  Merlin,  a  Masque";  "The  Marriage  of 
Guenevere,  a  Tragedy";  "The  Birth  of  Galahad,  a  Roman 
tic  Drama";  and  "Taleisin,  a  Masque."  A  considerable 
part  of  the  fifth  piece,  which  was  to  be  called  "The  Graal, 
a  Tragedy,"  was  left  in  fragmentary  form  along  with  out 
line  sketches  and  fragments  for  the  four  remaining  dramas. 
This  sequence,  even  in  its  incomplete  form,  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  notable  piece  of  work  yet  done  by  an  American 
in  the  field  of  Arthurian  romance.  As  has  been  said,  Hovey 
certainly  deserves  to  be  placed  among  "the  inheritors  of 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       137 

unfulfilled  renown."  His  war  poems,  written  during  the 
Spanish-American  War,  are  particularly  appropriate  read 
ing  now  that  the  great  European  War  is  absorbing  so 
much  attention.  The  following  passage  from  "The  Call  of 
the  Bugles"  will  illustrate  Hovey's  enthusiastic  patriotism, 
and  at  the  same  time  show  how  well  parts  of  this  poem  fit 
recent  conditions. 

Not  against  war, 

But  against  wrong 

League  we  in  mighty  bonds  from  sea  to  sea! 

Peace,  when  the  world  is  free! 

Peace,  when  there  is  no  thong, 

Fetter,  nor  bar! 

No  scourges  for  men's  backs, 

No  thumbscrews  and  no  racks  — 

For  body  or  soul! 

No  unjust  law ! 

No  tyrannous  control 

Of  brawn  or  maw ! 

But,  though  the  day  be  far, 

Till  then,  war! 

Blow,  bugles! 

Over  the  rumbling  drum  and  marching  feet 

Sound  your  high,  sweet  defiance  to  the  air! 

Great  is  war — great  and  fair! 

The  terrors  of  his  face  are  grand  and  sweet, 

And  to  the  wise,  the  calm  of  God  is  there. 

God  clothes  himself  in  darkness  as  in  light, 

—  The  God  of  love,  but  still  the  God  of  might. 

Nor  love  they  least 

Who  strike  with  right  good  will 

To  vanquish  ill 

And  fight  God's  battle  upward  from  the  beast. 

There  is  perhaps  a  touch  of  "jingoism"  in  Hovey's  war 
poetry,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  he  was  still  a  young 
man  when  he  died.  If  he  had  lived  he  would  doubtless 
have  moved  on  into  a  higher  type  of  philosophic  and  unselfish 
patriotism. 

10 


138  History  of  American  Literature 

The  song  writers.  New  York  and  the  Middle  States 
have  furnished  a  number  of  our  most  successful  popular 
song  writers.  Samuel  Woodworth  (1785-1842)  was  born 
in  Massachusetts,  but  he  spent  a  large  part  of  his  life  in 
New  York  as  an  editor.  He  is  remembered  for  the  senti 
mental  ballad  "The  Old  Oaken  Bucket."  John  Howard 
Payne  (1791-1852)  was  born  in  New  York,  but  he  lived  a 
sort  of  nomadic  life  as  an  actor,  dramatist,  dramatic  critic, 
and  foreign  consul,  sojourning  in  many  cities  in  many  differ 
ent  lands.  He  is  now  remembered  almost  solely  for  the 
sincere  and  pathetic  song  "Home,  Sweet  Home,"  which 
was  inserted  as  a  lyric  in  "Clari,  or  The  Maid  of  Milan," 
a  sentimental  light  opera  otherwise  of  little  literary  worth. 
Payne's  best  drama  is  his  blank- verse  tragedy  called  "Brutus, 
or  The  Fall  of  Tarquin."  George  Pope  Morris  (1802- 
1864)  and  Dr.  Thomas  Dunn  English  (1819-1902),  both 
of  Philadelphia,  are  remembered  respectively  for  a  single 
successful  lyric  of  a  simple  and  reminiscent  or  sentimental 
type,  Morris  being  the  author  of  "Woodman,  Spare  that 
Tree,"  and  Dr.  English  of  the  well  known  song,  "Ben  Bolt." 
Pennsylvania  may  also  lay  claim  to  Stephen  C.  Foster 
(1826-1864),  since  he  was  born  in  Pittsburgh,  though  he 
lived  most  of  his  life  in  Cincinnati  and  is  frequently  thought 
of  as  a  Middle  Westerner.  Foster  had  a  fine  sense  for 
simple  heart  melodies,  and  several  of  his  songs  have  become 
fixed  in  the  American  popular  ear  more  securely  than 
any  other  native  song  except  perhaps  "  Home,  Sweet  Home." 
The  best  known  of  his  songs  are  "Old  Black  Joe,"  "My 
Old  Kentucky  Home,"  and  "Old  Folks  at  Home." 

Other  minor  poets.  It  will  be  impossible  here  to  give  a 
full  discussion  of  the  remaining  New  York  and  Middle 
States'  poets,  though  there  are  many  others  that  should  be 
mentioned  both  for  the  excellency  of  their  technique  and  in 
some  cases,  particularly  among  the  more  recent  poets,  for 
the  freshness  and  modernity  of  their  lyric  notes.  Among 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       139 

the  best  known  of  these  poets  of  the  central  section  may  be 
named  the  following:  Thomas  Buchanan  Read  (1822-1872), 
author  of  "Sheridan's  Ride,"  "The  Closing  Scene,"  and 
many  other  longer  and  shorter  poems;  Hans  Breitman, 
whose  real  name  was  Charles  Godfrey  Leland  (1824-1903), 
writer  of  humorous  ballads  in  a  sort  of  broken  German 
English,  or  Pennsylvania  Dutch,  dialect;  Richard  Henry 
Stoddard  (1825-1903),  a  prolific  but  unequal  writer  of  nar 
rative  and  lyric  verse;  Alice  (1820-1871)  and  Phoebe  Cary 
(1824-1871),  authors  of  many  child  lyrics  and  religious 
songs,  "  One  Sweetly  Solemn  Thought "  being  the  best  known 
of  the  younger  sister's  hymns;  Richard  Watson  Gilder 
(1844-1909),  for  many  years  editor  of  The  Century  Maga 
zine  and  author  of  numerous  poems  of  a  deeply  religious  or 
spiritual  character;  George  H.  Boker  (1823-1890),  writer  of 
good  lyrics  and  also  the  author  of  what  has  been  pronounced 
the  finest  acting  tragedy  produced  in  America,  "Francesca 
da  Rimini";  Emma  Lazarus  (1849-1887),  the  widely  ad 
mired  young  Jewish  poetess ;  the  Reverend  Henry  van  Dyke 
(1852-),  writer  of  excellent  idyllic  prose  and  polished  verse; 
Clinton  Scollard  (1860-)  and  Frank  Dempster  Sherman 
(1860-1916),  both  fine  technicians  in  their  lyric  verse; 
Josephine  Preston  Peabody  (1874-),  author  of  delightful 
child  poems  and  a  prize  drama,  "The  Piper  " ;  Percy  Mackaye 
(1875-),  descended  from  a  family  of  famous  actors  in  New 
York  City,  author  of  "The  Scarecrow"  and  a  dozen  or 
more  other  successful  stage  plays,  a  number  of  masques  and 
one-act  plays,  and  also  some  patriotic  odes  and  other  literary 
lyrics  of  merit;  Witter  Bynner  (1881-),  author  of  "An  Ode 
to  Harvard,"  "The  New  World,"  and  "  Iphigenia  in  Tauris." 
Joyce  Kilmer  (1886-1918)  and  Alan  Seeger  (1888-1916), 
each  of  whom  gave  up  his  life  on  the  battle-fields  of  France, 
have  reached  a  higher  artistic  excellence  than  any  others 
of  the  hundreds  of  poets  that  have  been  inspired  by  the 
soul-stirring  events  of  the  great  World  War.  The  best  of 


140  History  of  American  Literature 

Kilmer's  pre-war  poetry  was  published  in  Trees  and  Other 
Poems  (1914).  His  most  powerful  and  pathetic  war  poem 
is  the  "Prayer  of  a  Soldier  of  France."  By  common  consent 
Alan  Seeger's  "I  Have  a  Rendezvous  with  Death"  has 
been  accepted  as  the  greatest  war  poem  produced  by  an 
American.1 

THE    NEW    YORK    AND    MIDDLE    ATLANTIC    STATES 
ESSAYISTS    AND    GENERAL    PROSE    WRITERS 

The  more  important  prose  writers.  The  more  important 
New  York  and  Middle  Atlantic  States  prose  writers  may 
be  grouped  in  two  classes, —  namely,  the  essayists  and 
general  prose  stylists,  and  the  story  writers  and  novelists. 
Nathaniel  Parker  Willis,  Bayard  Taylor,  Edmund  Clarence 
Stedman,  and  Henry  van  Dyke,  all  of  whom  wrote  good 
prose,  have  already  been  named  among  the  poets.  While 
dozens  of  additional  names  might  be  mentioned,  the  three 
writers  of  general  prose  that  deserve  special  attention  in 
the  Middle  States  group  are  George  William  Curtis,  Charles 
Dudley  Warner,  and  John  Burroughs. 

George  William  Curtis.  George  William  Curtis  (1824- 
1892)  was  born  in  Rhode  Island,  but  when  he  was  fifteen  he 
was  carried  to  New  York  by  his  family  and  set  to  work  as 
a  clerk  in  a  business  establishment.  Later  he  came  under 
the  influence  of  the  transcendental  movement  which  swept 
over  New  England,  and  for  a  time  he  lived  at  Brook  Farm 
as  one  of  the  students  or  boarders.  Then  he  took  up  his 
residence  at  Concord,  in  order  to  be  near  Emerson  and  some 
of  the  other  noted  transcendent alists  there.  After  several 
years  of  travel  abroad,  during  which  period  he  wrote  some 
good  travel  sketches,  Curtis  finally  settled  down  to  editorial 
work  in  New  York  City,  being  engaged  principally  on  the 


!The  summarizing  lists  of  minor  writers  with  accompanying  dates  found 
here  and  elsewhere  in  this  volume  are  not  intended  to  be  set  as  memory 
tasks  for  the  pupils,  but  rather  to  be  used  by  way  of  suggestion  for  further 
reading  outside  of  the  classroom. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group    '    141 

publications  issued  by  Harper  and  Brothers.  His  best 
prose  work  is  contained  in  the  idyllic  Prue  and  I  (1856);  in 
the  Potiphar  Papers  (1854);  in  the  essays  collected  from  the 
Editor's  Easy  Chair,  which  he  conducted  for  a  number  of 
years  for  Harper's  Magazine;  and  in  his  popular  Orations 
and  Addresses.  He  carried  his  idealistic  philosophy  into 
politics  and  business  in  such  a  way  as  to  set  a  very  high 
standard  for  his  contemporaries  and  at  the  same  time  to 
give  a  more  than  temporary  value  to  his  writings.  He  wrote 
one  novel,  Trumps  (1862),  but  the  delicate  and  idyllic  Prue 
and  I,  in  which  the  imaginative  element  of  fiction  and  the 
intimate  personal  tone  of  the  familiar  essay  are  mingled, 
stands  out  above  all  Curtis's  other  productions,  and  may 
be  classed  as  one  of  the  distinctive  American  prose  master 
pieces  of  the  mid-nineteenth  century. 

Charles  Dudley  Warner.  Charles  Dudley  Warner  (1829- 
1900)  was  born  and  reared  in  Massachusetts,  but  he  was 
educated  at  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  New  York,  and  in 
law  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania;  and  after  practicing 
his  profession  for  a  year  in  Chicago,  he  settled  permanently 
in  New -York  to  engage  in  editorial  and  literary  work.  His 
principal  prose  works  are  My  Summer  in  a  Garden  (1870),  a 
collection  of  pleasing  light  essays  and  sketches;  Backlog 
Studies  (1872),  treating  largely  of  outdoor  material;  several 
novels,  among  them  The  Gilded  Age  (1873),  written  in 
collaboration  with  Mark  Twain;  and  Being  a  Boy  (1877),  a 
delightfully  reminiscent  book  of  his  own  boyhood.  Warner's 
chief  claim  to  literary  distinction  is  in  his  genial  humor, 
kindly  sentimentality,  and  perfect  sincerity  and  naturalness 
of  style.  Many  a  young  reader  has  learned  to  appreciate 
the  art  of  restrained  and  yet  effective  prose  through  such 
sketches  as  "How  I  Killed  a  Bear"  and  "Camping  Out." 
Warner  is  also  often  referred  to  as  the  editor  of  The  Library 
of  the  World's  Best  Literature  (1897). 

John  Burroughs.     Among  the  recent  writers  of  essays 


142  History  of  American  Literature 

dealing  with  natural  history  and  outdoor  life  in  a  sympathetic 
and  more  or  less  scientific  spirit,  the  most  prominent  is  John 
Burroughs  (1837-).  He  was  born  in  Roxbury,  New  York, 
and  except  for  a  few  years  devoted  to  business  and  travel, 
he  has  spent  his  entire  life  studying  outdoor  life  at  first 
hand  in  his  rural  retreats  in  New  York.  He  has  published 
a  number  of  excellent  books  on  nature  and  some  discrimi 
nating  critical  essays.  Of  the  dozen  or  more  volumes  on 
nature  which  Burroughs  has  produced,  perhaps  the  best  are 
Wake  Robin  (1871),  Birds  and  Poets  (1877),  and  Locusts 
and  Wild  Honey  (1879).  Though  not  so  well  known  as  a 
writer  of  literary  criticism,  Burroughs  is  in  reality  one 
of  our  best  critics.  A  recent  writer  has  said  that  Bur- 
roughs's  essays  on  literary  subjects  "may  be  classed  with 
the  sanest  and  most  illuminating  critical  work  in  Amer 
ican  literature."1  His  essays  have  been  collected  in  a 
volume  called  Indoor  Studies  (1889).  Burroughs  was  one  of 
the  earliest  and  most  enthusiastic  friends  and  champions  of 
Walt  Whitman,  and  his  Notes  on  Walt  Whitman,  as  Poet  and 
Person,  and  Walt  Whitman,  a  Study,  are  important  contribu 
tions  to  the  large  amount  of  Whitman  criticism  which  has 
appeared  in  England  and  America  in  recent  years. 

Other  essayists.  To  this  earlier  group  of  general  essayists 
may  be  added  the  names  of  several  writers  who  have  gained 
distinction  by  a  steady  adherence  to  the  more  distinctly 
literary  type  of  essays:  William  Winter  (1836-1917),  the 
distinguished  dramatic  critic,  author  of  Shakespeare's  England 
(1888),  and  Gray  Days  and  Gold  (1891);  Hamilton  Wright 
Mabie  (1845-1916),  literary  editor  of  The  Outlook  and 
author  of  many  books,  among  them  My  Study  Fire  in 
three  volumes,  dated  respectively  1890,  1891,  1899;  Miss 
Agnes  Repplier  (1858-),  of  Philadelphia,  who  has  published 
more  than  a  dozen  volumes,  among  them  Books  and  Men 
(1888),  Essays  in  Idleness  (1893),  Americans  and  Others  (1912) ; 

1 F.  L.  Pattee,  A  History  of  American  Literature  since  1870,  p.  153. 


Courtesy  of  King-Brown  Company 
JOHN  BURROUGHS  AND  JOHN  MUIR 


144  History  of  American  Literature 

and  Paul  Elmer  More  (1864-),  whose  Shelburne  Essays  are 
held  by  discerning  critics  to  be  the  most  discriminating 
American  critical  work  of  recent  years.  Mr.  More  was  born 
in  St.  Louis  and  partly  educated  there,  but  his  best  work 
has  been  done  under  the  influence  of  New  England  and  New 
York  environments.  To  these  may  be  added  the  names  of 
two  of  our  later  presidents,  — Theodore  Roosevelt  (1858- 
1919),  who  was  born  and  reared  in  New  York  City,  but  who 
spent  several  years  of  his  life  in  Montana  and  the  Middle 
West;  and  Woodrow  Wilson  (1856-),  who  was  born  in  Vir 
ginia,  but  who  has  lived  the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life 
in  New  Jersey,  where  he  was  for  a  number  of  years  president 
of  Princeton  University  and  later  governor  of  the  state. 
Roosevelt's  best  work  is  to  be  found  in  his  Hunting  Trips 
of  a  Ranchman  (1885),  Ranch  Life  and  Hunting  Trail  (1888), 
and  The  Winning  of  the  West  (1889-1896),  all  of  which  reflect 
his  interest  in  Western  life.  After  he  became  famous  in  the 
Spanish-American  War,  he  published  The  Rough  Riders 
(1899)  and  The  Strenuous  Life  (1900).  He  has  also  written 
many  volumes  dealing  with  his  hunting  and  exploring  trip  in 
foreign  lands.  His  last  volume,  The  Great  Adventure  (1918), 
is  perhaps  the  best  of  several  books  of  his  dealing  with  the 
World  War.  Wilson  has  published  a  number  of  volumes 
treating  mainly  political  and  historical  subjects,  among 
them  An  Old  Master  and  Other  Political  Essays  (1893),  Mere 
Literature  and  Other  Essays  (1893),  A  History  of  the  American 
People  (1907),  and  The  New  Freedom  (1913).  His  great 
"War  Message  Address"  (April  2,  1917)  and  his  "Flag 
Day  Speech"  (June  14,  1917),  as  well  as  others  of  his  public 
addresses,  because  of  their  cogency,  their  wonderful  phras 
ing,  their  sincere  patriotism,  and  their  elemental  eloquence, 
will  assuredly  take  a  permanent  place  in  our  literary  as  well 
as  in  our  political  history.  In  fact,  Woodrow  Wilson  has  been 
hailed  throughout  the  world  not  only  as  the  spokesman  of 
America  but  as  the  foremost  statesman  of  the  age. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group        145 

THE    NEW    YORK    NOVELISTS    AND    STORY    WRITERS 

The  more  important  writers  of  fiction.  A  long  chapter 
might  be  devoted  to  the  New  York  and  Middle  Atlantic 
States'  writers  of  fiction,  but  we  shall  have  to  limit  our 
brief  comment  to  a  small  number  of  the  most  notable. 
Irving  and  Cooper,  the  two  major  writers  of  fiction  in  the 
early  New  York  school,  have  already  been  given  fuller 
treatment.  To  these  we  may  add  from  the  recent  school 
the  names  of  F.  Marion  Crawford,  who,  judged  both  by 
the  wide  circulation  and  the  literary  value  of  his  fiction,  is 
perhaps  the  best  of  the  later  New  York  writers;  and  Stephen 
Crane,  who  if  not  in  attainment  at  least  in  promise  should 
be  given  a  high  rank  among  our  later  writers  of  fiction. 
O.  Henry  (William  Sydney  Porter),  one  of  the  most  widely 
read  of  the  twentieth-century  writers,  was  connected  in 
his  later  years  with  the  New  York  group;  but  since  he 
began  his  career  in  the  South,  he  is  treated  elsewhere  in 
this  volume  as  one  of  the  story  writers  of  the  South.  To 
Philadelphia  we  may  assign  S.  Weir  Mitchell  and  Frank  R. 
Stockton  as  the  most  important  of  the  later  writers  of 
fiction  in  that  center,  and  since  they  were  older  than 
Crawford  and  Crane,  we  shall  take  them  up  first. 

S.  Weir  Mitchell.  Dr.  Silas  Weir  Mitchell  (1829-1914), 
though  born  in  Virginia,  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania  and  at  the  Jefferson  Medical  College  in 
Philadelphia,  and  practically  his  whole  life,  was  spent  in  the 
city  of  his  adoption.  Not  satisfied  with  winning  fame  as  a 
physician,  he  determined  to  develop  his  literary  gifts  also. 
He  began  writing  stories  just  after  the  Civil  War,  but  it  was 
not  funtil  he  published  Hugh  Wynne,  Free  Quaker,  in  1897 
that  he  attained  a  national  popularity.  The  scene  of  this 
story  was  laid  in  Philadelphia  during  the  "days  that  tried 
men's  souls,"  and  it  is  now  generally  recognized  as  one  of 
the  best  of  American  historical  novels.  Other  novels  by 
Dr.  Mitchell  worthy  of  special  mention  are  The  Adventures 


146  History  of  American  Literature 

of  Francois  (1898),  Dr.  North  and  His  Friends  (1900),  Cir 
cumstance  (1901),  and  The  Red  City  (1907). 

Frank  R.  Stockton.  Frank  Richard  Stockton  (1834-1902) 
was  born  and  educated  in  Philadelphia  and  is  usually 
associated  with  that  city,  though  much  of  his  literary  work 
was  done  in  connection  with  editorial  positions  which  he 
held  in  New  York  City.  The  story  that  brought  him  fame, 
"The  Lady,  or  the  Tiger?"  was  first  published  in  Scribner's 
Magazine  in  1882,  and  has  since  been  reprinted  many  times 
as  the  standard  of  the  type  of  short  story  distinguished 
by  peculiarity  of  situation  and  doubtful  outcome.  Stock 
ton  was  possessed  of  a  whimsical  or  quizzical  turn  of  mind, 
and  he  seemed  to  take  delight  in  creating  odd  and  striking 
situations  and  in  making  humorous  and  tantalizing  con 
clusions.  He  is  always  entertaining,  but  there  is  no  great 
constructive  power  and  no  profound  and  searching  character 
analysis  in  his  works.  Rudder  Grange  (1879)  is  perhaps  his 
best  longer  story.  His  fame  will  doubtless  rest  upon  his 
ingenious  short  stories  depicting  ludicrous  and  yet  more  or 
less  convincing  situations,  such  as  may  be  found  in  "The 
Lady,  or  the  Tiger?"  "Negative  Gravity,"  "The  Trans 
ferred  Ghost,"  and  "The  Late  Mrs.  Null." 

F.  Marion  Crawford.  Francis  Marion  Crawford  (1854- 
1909),  though  descended  from  a  distinguished  American 
family,  was  born  in  Italy  and  really  spent  most  of  his  life 
abroad.  He  was  educated  partly  in  New  England  and 
partly  in  English  and  German  universities ;  and  he  began  his 
literary  career  at  Harvard  University.  However,  he  was 
associated  with  New  York  life  more  intimately  in  his  later 
literary  career  than  with  any  other  part  of  America,  writing 
several  novels  depicting  society  life  in  the  American  metrop 
olis  and  himself  living  mostly  in  New  York  whenever  he 
visited  this  country.  Hence,  though  he  is  quite  as  much  a 
cosmopolitan  as  an  American  writer,  we  may  place  Crawford 
among  the  New  York  novelists.  He  wrote  an  enormous 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  York  Group       147 

number  of  entertaining  volumes  of  fiction,  publishing  forty- 
five  novels  in  all,  and  as  many  as  five  in  one  year  during 
his  active  literary  career  of  twenty-seven  years.  His  first 
book  was  Mr.  Isaacs  (1882),  a  story  dealing  with  life  in 
India,  but  it  is  generally  conceded  that  his  best  stories  are 
those  which  deal  with  Italian  life  and  scenes.  The  four 
novels  with  Italian  coloring,  Saracinesca  (1887),  Sant' 
Ilario  (1889),  Don  Orsino  (1892),  and  Corleone,  a  Sicilian 
Story  (1897),  a  continuous  sequence,  rank  among  the  most 
delightfully  entertaining  novels  written  during  the  late 
nineteenth  century.  Many  other  of  Crawford's  novels  are 
equally  popular,  however,  such  stories  as  Dr.  Claudius 
(1883),  A  Roman  Singer  (1884),  Greifenstein  (1889),  and 
A  Cigarette-Maker's  Romance  (1890),  having  one  after  the 
other  attracted  and  held  thousands  of  readers.  Crawford 
was  a  true  cosmopolite.  He  knew  the  life  of  many  lands; 
he  has  portrayed  scenes  and  characters  in  Italy,  Germany, 
England,  Turkey,  India,  ancient  Persia  and  Arabia,  and 
America,  all  with  convincing  and  entertaining  skill.  The 
Three  Fates  (1892)  is  perhaps  the  best  of  his  stories  dealing 
with  New  York  society  life,  though  Katharine  Lauderdale 
(1894)  and  its  sequel,  The  Ralstons  (1894),  also  give  inter 
esting  portraits  of  this  same  society.  So  wide  is  his  range, 
so  versatile  his  story-telling  gift,  and  so  adept  his  literary 
skill  that  he  will  probably  long  remain  one  of  our  most 
popular  novelists. 

Stephen  Crane.  Stephen  Crane  (1870-1900) ,  the  youngest 
of  the  late  nineteenth  century  New  York  group  of  novelists, 
was  born  in  New  Jersey  and  educated  at  Lafayette  College 
and  Syracuse  University,  entered  journalism  as  a  war 
correspondent  of  The  New  York  Journal  during  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  and  rose  rapidly  to  distinction  in  his  pro 
fession.  He  wrote  stories  dealing  with  slum  life  in  New 
York  (Bowery  Tales),  with  child  life  (Whilomville  Stories), 
and  with  New  York  society  (The  Third  Violet);  but  his 


148  History  of  American  Literature" 

one  notable  production  is  The  Red  Badge  of  Courage  (1895), 
a  remarkable  story  centered  around  the  battle  of  Chancellors- 
ville  in  the  Civil  War.  It  is  really  astonishing  how  thirty 
years  after  the  war  a  young  man  of  twenty-five  could  have 
conjured  up  such  realistic  battle  scenes  as  are  contained  in 
this  book. 

Minor  fiction  writers.  Among  the  great  number  of 
novelists  and  short-story  writers  of  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States  group  we  may  name  the  following  with  a  typical 
work  or  works  by  each:  Edward  Payson  Roe  (1838-1888), 
Barriers  Burned  Away  (1872),  The  Opening  of  a  Chestnut 
Burr  (1874);  Edward  Noyes  Westcott  (1847-1898),  David 
Harum  (1898) ;  Henry  van  Dyke  (1852-),  Little  Rivers  (1895) 
and  Fisherman's  Luck  (1899),  two  outdoor  studies,  and 
numerous  short  stories,  among  them  "The  Story  of  the 
Other  Wise  Man,"  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  Christmas 
story  written  in  America;  Henry  Cuyler  Bunner  (1855-1896), 
Short  Sixes  (1891);  Harold  Frederic  (1856-1898),  The 
Copperhead  and  Other  Stories  of  the  North  (1893)  and  The 
Damnation  of  Theron  Ware  (1896);  Kate  Douglas  Wiggin 
(1859-),  The  Bird's  Christmas  Carol  (1888),  The  Story  of 
Patsy  (1889),  Timothy  s  Quest  (1890),  Penelope's  Progress 
(1898),  Rebecca  of  Sunny  Brook  Farm  (1903),  and  New 
Chronicles  of  Rebecca  (1907);  Irving  Bacheller  (1859-), 
Eben  Holden  (1900),  D'ri  and  I  (1900) ;  Owen  Wister  (1860-), 
The  Virginian  (1900),  Philosophy  Four  (1903),  Lady 
Baltimore  (1906);  Edith  Wharton  (1862-),  The  Valley  of 
Decision  (1902),  The  House  of  Mirth  (1905),  Ethan  Frome 
(1911),  The  Reef  (1912),  The  Pentecost  of  Calamity  (1915); 
Richard  Harding  Davis  (1864-1916),  Gallagher  and  Other 
Stories  (1891),  Van  Bibber  and  Others  (1892);  Paul  Leicester 
P'ord  (1865-1902),  The  Honorable  Peter  Stirling  (1894), 
Janice  Meredith  (1894);  Anne  Douglas  Sedgwick  (1873-),  A 
Fountain  Sealed  (1907),  Tante  (1911),  The  Encounter  (19 14).1 

1  See  footnote  page  140. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     149 

2.     THE  NEW  ENGLAND  GROUP 
PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 

The  New  England  Renaissance.  Three  well-defined  and 
far-reaching  intellectual  movements  took  rise  in  New 
England  during  the  second  and  third  quarters  of  the  century. 
These  were,  first,  the  revolt  against  the  Calvinistic  theology 
of  the  Puritans,  a  movement  which  resulted  in  Unitarianism ; 
second,  the  idealistic  philosophy  introduced  from  Europe 
and  known  in  America  as  Transcendentalism;  and  third, 
the  anti-slavery  or  abolition  movement  in  politics,  a  move 
ment  which  eventually  divided  the  nation  into  two  intensely 
antagonistic  factions  and  led  more  or  less  directly  to  the 
Civil  War.  The  whole  intellectual  movement  in  New 
England  has  been  happily  called  "the  New  England  Ren 
aissance."1  Before  taking  up  a  survey  of  the  writers  of 
this  section,  we  may  well  attempt  to  explain  briefly  these 
three  movements  and  thus  present  the  general  nature  of 
the  revival  which  came  to  dominate  the  thought  of  New 
England  and  of  the  whole  nation,  in  fact,  during  this  period. 

THE    RISE    OF'  UNITARIANISM 

The  spirit  of  liberty.  We  have  previously  discussed  the 
general  characteristics  of  the  thought  and  temper  of  the 
Puritan  settlers  of  New  England.2  We  come  now  to  observe 
how  the  same  spirit  that  led  the  Pilgrim  fathers  to  leave 
England  in  search  of  religious  freedom  animated  the  later 
New  England  thinkers  in  their  gradual  revolt  against  the 
narrowness  and  personal  restraints  inspired  by  the  austere 
and  repressive  attitude  tovrard  life  which  characterized  the 
Puritan  regime  in  America.  The  first  form  in  which  this 
revolt  expressed  itself  was  within  the  church.  The  spirit 
of  the  Revolution,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  eventually  over 
threw  English  political  sovereignty,  manifested  itself  also 

*By  Professor  Barrett  Wendell  in  A  Literary  History  of  America. 
2See  pp.  12-14. 


150  History  of  American  Literature 

in  the  quiet  revolution  which  took  place  in  religious  thought 
• — namely,  the  dethronement  of  Calvinism  and  the  gradual 
acceptance  of  Unitarianism  in  its  stead. 

Fundamental  teachings  of  Unitarianism.  Harvard  Col 
lege  was  in  its  early  history  the  intellectual  stronghold  of 
Calvinistic  theology,  but  during  the  eighteenth  century 
Harvard  gradually  became  more  and  more  independent  of 
this  influence,  while  Yale  College  in  Connecticut  became 
the  center  of  religious  conservatism  and  orthodoxy.  The 
history  of  the  change  at  Harvard  is  significant.  In  1805 
Reverend  Henry  Ware,  a  Unitarian  minister,  was  elected, 
over  the  protests  of  the  orthodox  Calvinistic  party,  to  be 
Professor  of  Divinity  at  Harvard.  The  Unitarians  hold 
that  there  is  one  God  and  that  He  made  man  in  his  own 
image;  they  deny  that  Jesus  is  the  equal  of  God,  accept 
ing  him,  however,  as  the  perfect  man,  or  at  least  the  perfect 
representative  of  what  man  may  become.  They  profess 
to  find  in  man's  own  nature  certain  tendencies  toward  the 
divine,  and  hence  they  declare  that  there  is  no  need  for  a 
Redeemer  and  consequently  no  need  for  a  Comforter,  or 
Holy  Spirit,  to  represent  this  Redeemer.  The  doctrine  of 
the  Trinity  is  thus  gradually  dethroned,  and  the  doctrine  of 
the  one  God,  which  is  the  fundamental  idea  of  Unitarianism 
as  is  indicated  in  the  name  itself,  is  accepted  in  its  stead. 

Channing's  leadership.  William  Ellery  Channing  (1780- 
1842)  was  the  chief  spokesman  of  the  new  theology  now 
rising  into  prominence  in  New  England.  He  became  the 
minister  of  the  Federal  Street  Church  in  Boston  in  1803  and 
remained  its  pastor  for  thirty-seven  years.  In  1819  he 
preached  his  famous  sermon  on  Unitarian  Christianity,  in 
which  he  declared  for  intellectual  freedom  in  religious  mat 
ters,  and  particularly  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures, 
basing  his  argument  on  the  text,  "Prove  all  things;  hold  fast 
that  which  is  good."  He  held  that  the  Scriptures  must  be 
interpreted  by  man  in  the  light  of  reason  rather  than  blindly 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     151 

accepted  as  a  matter  of  faith  or  mere  traditional  doctrine. 
He  laid  the  foundation  of  virtue  in  the  moral  nature  of  man 
and  held  up  conscience  as  the  supreme  guide  of  conduct. 
This  spirit  of  liberalism  in  religious  matters  was  in  effect 
a  reaction  against  the  restraints  set  up  by  the  strict  Cal- 
vinistic  tenets  of  the  Puritans.  One  of  the  final  reforms 
instituted  in  the  new  form  of  worship  was  the  abandonment 
of  the  use  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  Emerson,  who  was  the  minister  of  the 
old  Second  Church  at  Boston,  retired  from  the  pastorate 
because  he  had  come  to  have  conscientious  scruples  in  regard 
to  administering  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

Influence  on  the  New  England  writers.  Although  the 
sect  was  at  no  period  strong  numerically,  Unitarianism 
became  the  religious  belief  of  the  best  intellectual  element 
in  New  England  during  the  first  two  decades  of  the  nine 
teenth  century,  and  held  sway  until  well  past  the  middle  of 
the  century,  when  its  influence  began  to  decline.  It  exerted 
a  powerful  force  upon  the  literary  products  of  this  period, 
practically  all  of  the  New  England  writers  having  either 
accepted  it  as  their  faith  or  come  strongly  under  its  influ 
ence.  In  any  interpretation  of  American  literature  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  remarkable  change  from  the  early 
strict  Puritanism  or  Calvinistic  theology  to  the  liberalism 
of  the  Unitarian  movement  cannot  be  ignored.  Unitarian- 
ism  was  more  or  less  intimately  connected  with  Transcen 
dentalism,  and  also  with  the  rise  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
abolition  of  slavery,  and  hence  it  must  be  constantly  kept 
in  mind  in  interpreting  these  later  phases  of  the  intellectual 
awakening  in  New  England. 

THE   TRANSCENDENTAL    MOVEMENT 

The  origin  and  the  meaning  of  transcendentalism.  There 
arose  in  middle  Europe  during  the  latter  part  of  the  eight 
eenth  and  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centuries  an  idealistic 


152  History  of  American  Literature 

type  of  philosophy  which  materially  affected  the  literature 
of  the  time.  The  literary  activity  resulting  partly  from 
this  idealistic  philosophy  and  partly  from  other  causes 
became  known  as  the  Romantic  Movement.  Its  principal 
exponents  in  England  were  De  Quincey,  Coleridge,  and 
Carlyle  in  prose,  and  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron, 
Shelley,  and  Keats  in  poetry.  Naturally  the  new  impulse 
found  followers  in  America,  and  what  is  known  as  the 
Transcendental  Movement  came  into  prominence,  particu 
larly  in  the  work  of  Emerson,  Thoreau,  Margaret  Fuller 
(Marquise  d'Ossoli),  and  Bronson  Alcott.  It  is  difficult 
to  define  Transcendentalism,  but  in  general  it  may  be  said 
to  be  the  recognition  of  the  supremacy  of  idealism  in  phi 
losophy,  literature,  and  conduct  of  life.  It  is,  in  fact,  an 
exaltation  of  the  ideal  or  spiritual  over  the  real  or  material. 
With  our  physical  senses  we  form  concepts  of  what  we  call 
the  real  world;  but  these  are  only  the  appearances  of  spirit 
ual  ideals,  and  back  of  all  objects  perceived  by  the  senses 
are  spiritual  realities  which  man  can  only  perceive  through 
the  higher  faculties  of  his  soul.  Hence,  the  transcenden- 
talist  concludes:  Material  objects,  which  ordinarily  we 
think  we  perceive  through  our  senses  as  real  things,  are  only 
the  appearances,  the  symbols,  of  spiritual  forces  and  realities 
.back  of  them;  hence,  also,  the  realities  of  the  spiritual  or 
the  ideal  transcend,  or  are  superior  to,  the  ordinary  appear 
ances  in  the  world  of  sense.  The  transcendentalists  asserted, 
then,  that  we  do  not  depend  solely  upon  the  knowledge 
gained  through  our  senses,  that  is,  our  ordinary  experiences 
in  the  world;  nor  upon  divine  revelation  of  the  spiritual 
world  as  recorded  in  the  Bible;  but  upon  our  intuitions,  or 
upon  certain  innate,  that  is,  inborn,  instincts  or  concepts  in 
man's  nature  or  soul  and  the  interpretation  of  these  by  the 
individual  conscience.  They  believed  that  the  soul  of 
man  was  of  the  same  essence  as  the  divine  soul,  and  hence 
man  should  give  heed  to  the  inner  promptings  of  his  own 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     153 

nature  in  deciding  matters  of  moral  conduct.  For  example, 
they  held  that  man  realizes  the  difference  between  right  and 
wrong  by  intuition  or  instinctive  revelation  in  his  own 
nature,  rather  than  by  revelation  through  experience  or 
even  through  God's  divine  word.  Emerson  expressed  the 
central  ideas  of  this  philosophy  in  the  little  book  called 
Nature  (1836),  in  which  he  drew  the  distinction  between 
nature  or  the  material  world  and  the  soul  or  the  world  of 
spirit;  in  several  of  his  lectures,  particularly  in  the  one 
called  "The  Transcendentalist " ;  and  in  many  of  his  essays, 
such  as  "The  Over  Soul,"  "Self -Reliance,"  "Experience," 
and  "Compensation." 

Popular  ridicule  of  the  transcendentalists.  Naturally  the 
enthusiasts  or  extremists  of  this  philosophy  attracted  a 
great  deal  of  ridicule  from  the  public.  Bronson  Alcott 
was  one  of  the  most  impractical  and  visionary  of  the  trans 
cendental  extremists,  and  he  became  the  target  of  many 
a  shaft  of  wit  from  the  practical  New  England  critics  of  the 
new  philosophy  ...  He  was  accused  of  living  in  the  clouds, 
drinking  the  wind,  and  feeding  on  spiritual  breakfasts  of 
"bowls  of  sunshine."  The  practical  New  Englanders 
reminded  him  that  his  family  could  not  exist  on  "bowls  of 
sunshine"  and  "transcendental  moonshine,"  and  these 
became  cant  phrases  for  ridiculing  the  cult.  Because  of 
the  mystical  and  super-subtle  notions  and  the  transcenden 
tal  vaporings  of  some  of  the  extremists,  however,  we  should 
not  under-estimate  the  real  value  and  permanent  influence 
of  the  Transcendental  Movement. 

"  The  Dial."  A  good  deal  of  vagueness  naturally  attends 
this  idealistic  philosophy,  and  it  was  necessary  for  the  pro 
ponents  of  these  vague  and  abstruse  doctrines  to  have  some 
medium  in  which  to  express  their  thought  and  bring  it  before 
the  public  for  fuller  acceptance  and  discussion.  In  1836  the 
Transcendental  Club,  sometimes  called  the  Symposium,  was 
organized  at  Concord;  and  in  1840,  The  Dial  was  established 

11 


i$4      •  History  of  American  Literature 

with  a  remarkable  woman,  Margaret  Fuller  —  she  later 
married  an  Italian  marquis  named  Ossoli  —  as  editor.  This 
quarterly  journal  continued  for  four  years,  part  of  the  time 
under  Emerson's  direction.  It  is  now  highly  prized  as  the 
chief  repository  of  much  of  the  contemporary  expression 
of  the  transcendental  notions  then  in  vogue.  Margaret 
Fuller  wrote  for  it  many  critical  articles;  Emerson  contrib 
uted  some  of  his  most  notable  essays  and  poems  to  it; 
Bronson  Alcott  sent  in  by  chapters  his  "Orphic  Sayings"; 
and  other  well  known  men,  like -George  Ripley,  Theodore 
Parker,  William  Ellery  Channing,  and  Henry  David  Tho- 
reau,  were  contributors. 

The  Brook  Farm  experiment.  In  addition  to  The  Dial 
another  peculiar  experiment  helped  to  bring  the  ideals  of 
the  transcendentalists  into  public  notice.  This  was  the 
establishment  in  1841  of  a  sort  of  idealistic  community  at 
West  Roxbury,  near  Boston,  known  as  Brook  Farm.  It  was 
intended  to  afford  a  school  for  the  training  of  bright  young 
minds  in  the  new  transcendental  philosophy,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  provide  a  retreat  for  adults  who  wished  to 
live  the  ideal  communistic  life.  The  members  of  the  com 
munity  were  to  have  equal  privileges,  and  each  one  was 
expected  to  do  his  share  of  physical  labor  and  also. to  join 
in  the  intellectual  and  literary  activities  of  the  group. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  Hawthorne  invested  one  thou 
sand  dollars  of  his  savings  in  the  project  at  its  beginning, 
spent  several  months  in  residence  at  the  farm,  and  later 
based  one  of  his  novels,  The  Blithedale  Romance,  on  his 
experiences  here.  The  phalanstery,  or  common  home  for 
all  the  members,  was  built  later,  and  a  number  of  men  and 
women  and  younger  students  took  up  their  residence  here 
for  longer  or  shorter  periods.  The  experiment  attracted 
widespread  attention  throughout  New  England  and  even  in 
certain  parts  of  the  Old  World.  Emerson,  Margaret  Fuller, 
and  many  prominent  persons  made  occasional  visits  of 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group    155 

several  days'  length  to  the  community.  From  a  practical 
point  of  view  the  experiment  proved  a  failure,  for  the  resident 
members  knew  too  little  about  practical  agriculture  to  make 
anything  from  the  land,  and  the  income  from  the  school  was 
insufficient  to  pay  running  expenses.  When  the  main  build 
ing  burned  in  1847,  the  community  was  broken  up  and  the 
experiment  abandoned.  Little  of  purely  literary  value 
resulted  directly  from  the  Brook  Farm  experiment,  but  the 
influence  of  this  effort  to  put  the  idealistic  theories  of  the 
transcendentalists  into  practical  living  must  be  taken  into 
account  in  estimating  the  literary  output  of  New  England 
during  this  period. 

THE    RISE    OF   THE    DOCTRINE    OF    ABOLITION 

Introductory  statement.  The  growth  of  the  demand  for 
the  abolition  of  negro  slavery  in  America  is  intimately 
interwoven  with  the  rise  of  Unitarian  theology  and  tran 
scendental  philosophy  in  New  England.  Abolition  became 
later  a  political  and  social  question,  but  in  its  beginning 
it  was  an  offshoot  of  the  new  spirit  for  setting  free  mind 
and  soul  as  announced  in  the  religious  and  philosophic 
reforms  just  mentioned.  Since  the  question  finally  became 
one  of  practical  politics,  its  progress  is  usually  more  or  less 
fully  treated  in  school  histories  of  the  United  States,  and 
hence  here  we  need  only  glance  at  its  literary  aspects. 

Literary  products:  pamphleteers  and  orators.  Naturally 
a  question  of  public  policy  like  the  abolition  of  slavery 
would  call  forth  two  distinct  schools  of  orators  and  political 
writers,  and  naturally  the  North,  animated  by  the  influences 
for  personal  and  intellectual  liberty  emanating  from  the 
two  religious  and  intellectual  movements  just  described, 
would  stand  for  the  complete  emancipation  of  the  negro 
slaves;  naturally,  too,  the  South,  where  slavery  had  proved 
to  be  most  successful  in  the  agricultural  pursuits  of  that 
section,  would  favor  the  continuance  of  the  institution  of 


156  History  of  American  Literature 

slavery.  In  New  England,  particularly,  the  aid  of  pure 
literature  was  also  called  in,  and  we  have  a  great  mass  of 
anti-slavery  poems,  such  as  those  of  Whittier,  Lowell,  and 
Longfellow  among  the  greater  poets;  and  purpose  novels, 
ouch  as  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe's  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  But 
the  bulk  of  the  literature  connected  with  the  movement 
for  abolition  consisted  of  patriotic  orations  and  argumen 
tative  speeches,  essays  and  polemical  tracts,  and  the  like. 
Whittier,  Lowell,  Wendell  Phillips,  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
and  many  others  contributed  to  the  leading  abolition 
journals,  such  as  The  Liberator,  founded  by  Garrison  in 
Boston  in  1831,  and  The  Pennsylvania  Freeman,  edited  for 
a  number  of  years  by  Whittier.  The  literary  value  of  this 
controversial  writing  and  this  partisan  oratory,  as  we  have 
already  shown  in  our  discussion  of  the  Revolutionary 
literature,  is  slight  and  transitory.  We  cannot  pass  over 
this  material,  however,  without  mentioning  the  names  of 
such  orators  as  Daniel  Webster  (1782-1852),  Edward 
Everett  (1794-1865),  Theodore  Parker  (1810-1860),  Wendell 
Phillips  (1811-1886),  and  Charles  Sumner  (1811-1874). 
The  orations  of  some  of  these  have  reached  a  wider  fame 
because  of  their  more  general  patriotic  or  literary  nature, 
such  as  Webster's  great  address  at  the  laying  of  the  corner 
stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument,  known  as  "The  First 
Bunker  Hill  Oration,"  his  speech  on  the  American  Con 
stitution,  usually  called  "Webster's  Reply  to  Hayne," 
delivered  in  the  "Great  Debate"  in  Congress  in  1830,  and 
Everett's  oft-repeated  speech  on  "George  Washington." 

THE    MAJOR   NEW   ENGLAND    WRITERS 

The  major  writers  classified.  The  seven  major  writers 
of  New  England  are,  by  common  consent,  Emerson,  Haw 
thorne,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Holmes,  Thoreau,  and  Lowell.1 

iBryant  is  also  essentially  a  New  England  poet,  but  since  he  lived  so 
long  in  New  York  he  has  been  treated  elsewhere  in  this  volume. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     157 

Emerson  is  classed  as  an  ethical  teacher  and  essayist,  but 
he  is  almost  equally  well  known  as  a  poet.  Hawthorne, 
the  great  romancer,  wrote  no  poetry,  but  because  of  the 
highly  imaginative  and  artistic  quality  of  his  prose  tales 
he  is  frequently  referred  to  as  the  belated  prose  poet  of  Puri 
tan  New  England.  Longfellow  and  Whit  tier  are  thought 
of  primarily  as  poets,  though  each  of  them  wrote  "a  con 
siderable  amount  of  prose.  Holmes  and  Lowell  are  about 
equally  famous  as  prose  writers  and  poets.  Thoreau  wrote 
some  poetry,  but  he  is  now  almost  entirely  remembered  as  a 
writer  of  essays  interpretative  of  nature.  Together  these 
seven  New  England  authors  make  up  by  far  the  most  impor 
tant  school  of  American  writers.  We  shall  consider  them 
separately  in  sequence,  but  the  student  should  remember 
that  they  were  all  more  or  less  closely  associated  one  with 
another,  and  that  their  literary  products  as  a  whole  represent 
the  best  output  of  what  Professor  Wendell  has  called  the 
New  England  Renaissance. 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson.  Matthew  Arnold,  in  his  lecture 
on  Emerson,  said  that  if  we  should  judge  him  with  perfect 
impartiality  we  would  have  to  admit  that  Emerson  is  not  a 
great  poet,  not  a  great  prose  writer,  not  even  a  great  phi 
losopher,  but  that  he  is  "preeminently  the  friend  and  aider 
of  those  who  would  live  in  the  spirit."  In  ranking  Emerson 
relatively  in  American  literature,  however,  we  do  not  hesitate 
to  say  that  he  is  one  of  our  great  poets,  even  though  he  is 
not  preeminent  in  this  field;  that  he  is  unquestionably  our 
greatest  essayist;  and  that  he  is  one  of  the  world's  great 
ethical  teachers.  No  educated  American  can  afford  to  be 
unacquainted  with  the  works  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson. 

Emerson's  early  life.  Emerson  (1803-1882)  was  born  in 
Boston,  May  25,  1803.  He  was  descended  from  a  long  line 
of  New  England  ministers,  his  father,  Reverend  William 
Emerson,  being  minister  at  the  First  Unitarian  Church  in 
Boston  at  the  time  of  Emerson's  birth,  and  his  grandfather  of 


1 58  History  of  American  Literature 

the  same  name  having  been  minister  at  Concord  during  the 
American  Revolution.  Emerson  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
College  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  It  is  said  that  he  attracted 
no  particular  notice  in  college,  but  he  made  a  good  record 
and  took  some  of  the  honors,  being  chosen  as  class  poet 
and  taking  the  second  prize  in  the  Boylston  contest  in  Eng 
lish  composition.  Immediately  after  graduation  he  engaged 
in  teaching,  but  in  1823  he  returned  to  the  divinity  school  of 
Harvard  College  and  began  studying  definitely  for  the 
ministry.  He  was  ordained  in  1829  and  was  at  once  installed 
as  assistant  minister  in  the  Second  Unitarian  Church  of 
Boston.  In  this  year  he  married  Miss  Ellen  Tucker.  She 
did  not  live  long,  however,  and  some  years  later  Emerson 
was  married  to  Miss  Lidian  Jackson,  who  bore  him  several 
children  and  made  him  a  happy  home  at  Concord.  Emerson 
became  full  minister  of  the  Second  Church  when  his  colleague 
resigned  in  1829,  and  for  over  three  years  he  served  the 
church  acceptably.  In  1832  he  began  to  have  conscientious 
scruples  about  his  fitness  to  commemorate  the  Lord's  Supper, 
and  on  September  9  of  that  year  he  preached  his  farewell 
sermon  and  courageously  resigned  his  pulpit. 

Emerson's  lectures.  Thus  thrown  on  his  own  resources  for 
a  livelihood,  Emerson  began  to  lecture  and  write.  He  visited 
Europe  in  1833  and  met  many  famous  literary  people, 
notably  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Landor,  De  Quincey, 
George  Eliot,  and  Cowper.  On  his  return  he  settled  in 
Concord  (1834)  and  took  up  his  residence  at  the  famous  old 
house  known  as  the  "Old  Manse,"  where  his  grandfather, 
Reverend  William  Emerson,  Sr.,  had  lived,  and  where 
Hawthorne  later  took  up  his  abode  and  wrote  Mosses  from 
an  Old  Manse.  The  correspondence  between  Emerson  and 
Carlyle,  begun  at  this  period,  extended  to  the  death  of 
Carlyle  in  1881,  and  the  series  of  letters  between  these  two 
great  masters  is  one  of  the  most  notable  in  all  English  and 
American  literature.  The  lecture  platform  was  Emerson's 


RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON 


160  History  of  American  Literature 

pulpit  from  this  time  on.  In  fact,  it  was  largely  through 
Emerson  that  lyceum  lecturing  as  a  means  of  public  enter 
tainment  and  instruction  was  first  brought  into  favor  in  this 
country.  He  had  a  marvelously  sweet  and  appealing  voice, 
and  his  fresh,  vigorous,  tonic  messages  attracted  and  inspired 
his  audiences  even  when  they  did  not  fully  understand  the 
import  of  what  he  was  saying. 

"Concord  Hymn."  On  September  12,  1835,  Emerson 
delivered  at  Concord  a  speech  called  "An  Historical  Dis 
course  on  the  Second  Centennial  Anniversary  of  the  Incor 
poration  of  the  Town,"  and  when  the  monument  commemo 
rating  the  battle  of  Concord  was  dedicated  on  July  4,  1837, 
he  was  called  upon  to  write  a  hymn  for  the  occasion.  The 
little  poem  which  he  produced,  now  known  as  "Concord 
Hymn,"  has  since  become  one  of  the  nation's  poetical  trea 
sures.  It  has  only  four  stanzas,  but  is  complete  and  satisfy 
ing  as  a  work  of  art.  The  first  stanza  is  doubtless  the  most 
frequently  quoted  passage  of  Emerson's  poetry.1 

"Nature."  In  1836  Emerson's  first  book,  Nature,  ap 
peared.  It  was  a  small  volume  of  less  than  one  hundred 
pages,  but  it  was  packed  full  of  inspiration,  idealism,  and 
profound  philosophy.  It  was  written  in  a  tense,  poetical, 
rhapsodic  prose  style,  and  naturally  it  attracted  very  little 
popular  attention.  Holmes  calls  it  a  reflective  prose  poem. 
It  sets  forth  ideas  on  nature  similar  to  those  expressed  by 
Wordsworth  in  his  poetry,  and  it  is  the  seed-field  for  many 
of  the  transcendental  ideas  later  developed  by  Emerson  on 
nature,  God,  and  the  soul  of  man.  The  public  was  not 
ready  for  such  a  volume,  and  not  more  than  five  hundred 
copies  of  this  really  great  book  were  sold  within  twelve  years 
after  its  publication. 

11  The  American  Scholar."  Nevertheless,  Emerson  was 
now  rapidly  becoming  a  prominent  figure  in  the  intellectual 
life  of  New  England.  In  1837  he  was  asked  to  deliver  the 

1  See  the  illustration  with  quotation  on  opposite  page. 


THE  MINUTE  MAN,  CONCORD 

'By  the  rude  bridge  that  arched  the  flood, 
Their  flag  to  April's  breeze  unftirled. 

Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world. 


1 62  History  of  American  Literature 

oration  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  Society  at  Cambridge, 
and  he  prepared  for  this  occasion  that  notable  address 
"The  American  Scholar."  Lowell  spoke  of  its  delivery  as 
an  event  "without  former  parallel  in  our  literary  annals, " 
and  Holmes  said  "this  grand  oration  was  our  intellectual 
Declaration  of  Independence."  In  it  Emerson  defined  the 
scholar  as  "Man  Thinking,"  and  declared  "Our  day  of 
dependence,  our  long  apprenticeship  to  the  learning  of  other 
lands  draws  to  a  close."  He  discussed  the  education  of 
the  scholar  by  nature,  books,  and  action,  and  laid  down  a 
noble  scheme  of  the  scholar's  duties  in  the  new  age  of  inde 
pendence  and  individualism.  Holmes  said  in  summarizing 
the  effect  of  this  wonderful  oration:  "Young  men  went  out 
from  it  as  if  a  prophet  had  been  proclaiming  to  them  *  Thus 
saith  the  Lord. '  No  listener  ever  forgot  that  address,  and 
among  all  the  notable  utterances  of  the  speaker  it  may  be 
questioned  if  one  ever  contained  more  truth  in  language  more 
like  that  of  immediate  inspiration. " 

Emerson's  "Essays."  The  Essays,  First  Series,  appeared 
in  1841,  and  the  Second  Series  in  1844.  Most  of  these 
essays  were  first  given  as  lectures.  One  might  think  that 
the  lecturer  could  have  simplified  and  reduced  his  addresses 
into  some  formal  order  as  he  repeated  them  from  time  to 
time,  but  such  is  not  the  case  with  Emerson's  essays.  There 
is  great  compression  of  thought  and  condensation  and  pre 
cision  of  style  in  these  compositions.  It  has  been  said  that 
"he  who  runs  may  read, "  but  this  saying  cannot  be  applied 
to  Emerson's  essays.  One  must  stop  and  think,  and  think 
deeply,  or  else  one  will  miss  the  best  of  Emerson's  thought. 
No  book  in  our  literature  is  more  worthy  of  one's  close  study 
and  attention,  and  none  will  give  the  young  mind  such  fine 
practice  in  interpretative  mental  exercise.  In  fact,  Emerson 
is  one  of  the  most  inspiring  of  all  writers;  it  is  said  that  he 
has  made  more  thoughtful  readers  than  has  any  other  Ameri 
can  writer.  He  is  certainly  a  stimulating  mental  tonic,  and 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     163 

every  ambitious  youth  should  give  his  very  best  effort  to 
the  mastery  of  a  few  of  the  simpler  pieces,  and  eventually 


EMERSON'S  HOME,  CONCORD 

should  read  all  twenty-four  of  the  essays  in  these  two 
volumes.  "Self-Reliance,"  "Behavior,"  "Heroism,"  and 
"Compensation"  are  perhaps  the  most  stimulating  for 
young  readers,  but  there  are  many  others  almost  if  not 
quite  as  good,  not  only  in  the  two  volumes  of  Essays,  but 
in  the  remaining  prose  works  of  Emerson. 

Emerson's  other  prose  volumes.  Among  the  other  prose 
books  of  Emerson  are  Representative  Men  (1850),  English 
Traits  (1850),  Conduct  of  Life  (1860),  Society  and  Solitudj 
(1870),  Letters  and  Social  Aims  (1875).  These  are  made 
up  largely  of  lectures  and  essays  similar  in  thought  and  style 
to  the  better  known  Essays.  All  through  the  years  of  his 
maturity  Emerson  had  the  habit  of  jotting  down  his  thoughts 
in  his  Journals,  and  from  this  intellectual  storehouse  he  drew 
material  for  his  addresses  and  books.  This  wonderful 


164  History  of  American  Literature 

miscellaneous  source  book  for  the  study  of  Emerson's 
thought  and  the  development  of  his  mind  and  character 
has  now  been  published,  and  lovers  of  Emerson  can  delve 
in  it  at  will. 

Emerson's  prose  style.  Emerson's  style  is  unique.  He 
said  what  he  had  to  say  in  brilliant,  epigrammatic  sentences, 
often  so  condensed  as  to  be  almost  unintelligible  to  the 
superficial  reader.  He  had  little  smoothness  or  sweetness  of 
style,  though  he  possessed  wonderful  facility  in  turning 
epigrams  and  expressive  phrases,  and  occasionally  he  rose 
to  passages  of  majestic  beauty  and  sublimity.  He  may 
be  said  to  be  weak  in  the  architectural  or  combining  and 
arranging  power  of  style.  He  throws  his  brilliant  sentences 
and  paragraphs  together  in  a  vague  sort  of  order.  There  is 
certainly  not  that  smoothness  in  transition  nor  definiteness 
of  paragraph  topics  that  we  now  expect  and  demand  of  the 
average  good  prose  stylist.  '  He  said  himself  that  he  sought 
no  order  or  harmony  of  style  in  his  writing.  He  speaks  of 
his  sentences  as  composed  of  "infinitely  repellent  particles. " 
One  often  thinks  of  Emerson's  essays  as  made  up  of  rough 
piles  of  unhewn  stones  thrown  together  indiscriminately. 
In  another  place  Emerson  speaks  of  his  " lapidary  style," 
that  is,  the  style  of  one  who  composes  as  if  his  sentiments 
were  to  be  carved  in  stone.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  in  his 
life  of  Emerson  in  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series,  says : 
"Emerson's  style  is  epigrammatic,  incisive,  authoritative, 
sometimes  quaint,  never  obscure,  except  when  he  is  handling 
'  nebulous  subjects.  His  paragraphs  are  full  of  brittle  sen 
tences  that  break  apart  and  are  independent  units,  like  the 
fragments  of  a  coral  colony.  His  imagery  is  frequently  daring, 
leaping  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  the  special 
to  the  general  and  universal,  and  vice  versa  with  a  bound 
that  is  like  a  flight. " 

Emerson  as  a  poet.  As  a  poet  Emerson  has  usually  not 
been  ranked  high,  but  there  are  some  who  consider  him 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     165 

after  all  the  truest  of  American  poets.  There  is  no  use 
denying  that  he  was  a  mediocre  poetical  craftsman  in  so  far 
as  mere  technical  excellences  are  concerned.  His  rhythm 
is  often  harsh  and  wabbly,  and  his  rimes  are  sometimes 
untrue  and  even  impossible.  There  is  little  or  no  steady 
evolution  of  thought  or  largeness  and  finality  of  treatment 
in  many  of  his  poems;  but  in  others,  particularly  some  of  the 
shorter  ones,  there  are  an  artistic  finish  and  a  completeness 
and  a  perfection  of  expression  that  leave  little  to  be  desired. 
For  the  most  part  Emerson's  better  poetry  is  personal  and 
self-revealing.  We  can  understand  Emerson  the  philosopher 
by  studying  the  essays;  but  we  can  better  comprehend 
Emerson  the  man  by  studying  his  poetry.  It  is  true  that  a 
number  of  his  poems  deal  with  abstract  philosophical  truths , 
such  as  we  find  in  the  essays,  and  these  will  puzzle  the  most 
attentive  reader  unless  by  a.  previous  acquaintance  with 
the  essays  he  is  prepared  to  know  what  to  expect.  That 
Emerson  was  at  bottom  a  real  poet  is  no  less  evident  in  his 
best  prose  than  in  his  best  poetry.  He  took  the  office  of 
poet  seriously,  declaring  that  he  was  naturally  susceptible 
to  the  pleasures  of  rhythm  and  that  he  believed  he  would 
some  day  "attain  to  that  splendid  dialect."  Eventually 
he  almost  always  put  his  finest  thoughts  into  rhythmic 
form.  For  example,  once  when  he  was  taking  a  brief  holi 
day  at  the  seashore  on  Cape  Ann,  he  wrote  in  his  journal  a 
passage  of  prose  expressing  his  emotions  in  the  presence  of 
the  ocean.  When  he  returned  to  Concord,  he  read  the 
passage  over  aloud  and  discovered  that  with  a  few  slight 
changes  the  whole  could  be  scanned  as  almost  perfect 
blank  verse.  He  immediately  transcribed  it  in  poetic  form 
and  added  a  few  lines,  thus  completing  the  beautiful  poem 
called  " Seashore." 

Emerson's  best  poems.  Besides  "Concord  Hymn,"  which 
has  already  been  mentioned,  among  the  best  of  Emerson's 
shorter  poems  for  the  young  reader  are  "Good-Bye," 


1 66  History  of  American  Literature 

"The  Rhodora,"  "The  Humble  Bee,"  "The  Snow-Storm," 
"Give  All  to  Love,"  "Each  and  All,"  "Fable"  (sometimes 
called  "The  Mountain  and  the  Squirrel"),  "The  Titmouse," 
and  "Days."  The  longer  poems  are  not  such  easy  reading, 
for  they  are  usually  composed  more  in  the  manner  of  the 
essays,  that  is,  they  have  little  apparent  organic  or  system 
atic  evolution  and  ordering  of  parts.  "May-Day"  and 
"Woodnotes"  are  typical.  They  contain  many  beautiful 
passages,  but  they  are  disappointing  as  wholes.  The  poem 
called  "Threnody,"  an  elegy  written  in  memory  of  Emer 
son's  son  who  died  at  the  age  of  about  five  years,  will  prove 
to  be  more  satisfying  because  of  its  note  of  faith  even  in 
the  poignancy  of  the  poet's  grief.  Similarly,  "Terminus," 
a  poem  written  toward  the  close  of  Emerson's  active  career, 
sets  forth  the  poet's  cheerful  optimism  and  calm  dignity 
as  he  approached  old  age  and  death.  The  final  stanza, 
which,  reminds  one  of  the  brave  and  optimistic  outlook 
with  which  Browning  greeted  death,  is  well  worth  commit 
ting  to  memory: 

As  the  bird  trims  her  to  the  gale, 
I  trim  myself  to  the  storm  of  time, 
I  man  the  rudder,  reef  the  sail, 
Obey  the  voice  at  eve  obeyed  at  prime: 
"Lowly  faithful,  banish  fear, 
Right  onward  drive  unharmed; 
The  port,  well  worth  the  cruise,  is  near, 
And  every  wave  is  charmed." 

In  "Voluntaries,"  a  poem  written  during  the  Civil  War, 
occurs  the  ringing  appeal  to  youth  to  rally  to  the  call  of 
Freedom.  The  last  quatrain  of  the  third  division  of  this 
poem  is  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  ethical  epigram  to 
be  found  anywhere  in  English  poetry : 

So  nigh  is  grandeur  to  our  dust, 

So  near  is  God  to  man, 
When  Duty  whispers  low,  Thou  must, 

The  youth  replies,  /  can. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     167 

Emerson's    last    days:    a  final    estimate.     Emerson    died 
April  27,  1882,  and  was  buried  in  Sleepy  Hollow  Cemetery, 


EMERSON'S  GRAVE,  SLEEPY  HOLLOW 

Concord,  near  the  grave  of  Hawthorne.  An  immense 
boulder  of  unhewn  rose  quartz,  typical  of  the  combination 
of  rough  strength  and  native  beauty  in  Emerson's  genius, 
now  marks  his  grave.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  his  mind 
showed  evidences  of  gradual  decay.  He  ceased  to  produce 
anything  of  worth,  and  he  forgot  even  the  names  of  his 
friends.  When  Longfellow  died  (March,  1882),  Emerson 
was  carried  to  the  funeral,  and  as  he  looked  on  the  dead 
poet's  face  he  was  heard  to  remark,  "That  gentleman  was 
a  sweet,  beautiful  soul,  but  I  have  entirely  forgotten  his 
name."  Emerson  had  long  since  done  his  best  work.  He 
had  touched  as  with  a  tongue  of  fire  the  young  and  vigorous 
minds  of  America;  he  had  declared  for  independence,  self- 
trust,  individualism  in  religion  and  art;  he  had  expressed 
his  own  sense  of  the  profound  moral  and  ethical  truths  of 


1 68  History  of  American  Literature 

the  universe  in  enduring  form  in  both  prose  and  verse. 
As  Paul  Elmer  More  declares  in  his  recent  essay  on 
Emerson,  "It  becomes  more  and  more  apparent  that 
Emerson,  judged  by  an  international  standard  or  even  by 
a  broad  national  standard,  is  the  outstanding  figure  in 
American  letters."1 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (1804- 
1864),  born  in  the  seacoast  town  of  Salem,  Massachusetts, 
July  4,  1804,  was  descended  from  two  generations  of  sea 
captains  and  from  a  long  line  of  Puritan  magistrates  and 
warriors.  Among  his  progenitors  on  his  father's  side  were 
some  who  persecuted  the  Quakers  and  authorized  the  execu 
tion  of  witches  in  the  celebrated  Salem  witchcraft  delusion. 
It  is  said  that  the  curse  of  one  of  the  sufferers  lingered  like 
a  black  blot  in  the  blood,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
the  dark  and  gloomy  cast  of  Hawthorne's  genius  was  trace 
able  to  this  ancestral  source.  His  mother  was  a  Manning, 
representing  another  distinguished  Puritan  family,  and  so 
we  may  certainly  say  that  Hawthorne  came  naturally  by 
that  Puritan  conscience  of  which  he  was  to  become  the 
renowned  artistic  interpreter. 

Hawthorne's  youth.  In  the  boy's  fourth  year  his  father 
died  while  away  on  a  sea  voyage,  and  his  mother  shut  her 
self  up  from  the  world  in  a  sort  of  lifelong  grief.  After 
several  years  she  moved  to  the  large  Manning  estates  on 
Sebago  Lake,  Maine,  and  here  Nathaniel  lived  from  his 
ninth  until  his  fourteenth  year.  As  he  afterwards  declared, 
this  was  one  of  the  bright  periods  in  his  rather  gloomy  and 
solitary  early  life.  "I  ran  quite  wild,"  he  wrote,  "and 
would,  I  doubt  not,  have  willingly  run  wild  till  this  time, 
fishing  all  day  long,  or  shooting  with  an  old  fowling-piece; 
but  reading  a  good  deal,  too,  on  the  rainy  days,  especially 

^Cambridge  History  of  American  Literature,  Vol.  I,  p.  349.  The  best 
known  life  of  Emerson  is  that  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  in  the  American 
Men  of  Letters  Series  (1885).  A  good  recent  treatment  is  that  by  O.  W. 
Firkins  (1915). 


NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE 


12 


170  History  of  American  Literature 

in  Shakespeare  and  The  Pilgrim's  Progress."  This  last 
book,  together  with  another  early  favorite  of  Hawthorne's, 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  is  significant  as  the  source  of  his 
fondness  for  allegory  in  his  own  stories. 

His  education.  His  mother  returned  to  Salem  to  seek 
means  of  education  for  her  three  children.  She  selected  a 
tutor  for  Nathaniel,  and  within  two  years  he  was  ready  to 
enter  Bowdoin  College.  Franklin  Pierce,  afterwards  presi 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  one  class  ahead  of  Hawthorne, 
and  Longfellow  was  in  the  same  class,  that  of  1825.  Haw 
thorne  made  a  few  close  friendships,  notably  with  Pierce 
and  Horatio  Bridge,  the  last  named  being  his  most  intimate 
friend  and  the  one  who  believed  in  him  and  had  most  influ 
ence  in  turning  him  toward  authorship. 

Hawthorne's  tales  and  sketches.  After  graduation  Haw 
thorne  went  back  to  Salem,  where  his  mother  still  lived. 
And  in  "a  solitary  chamber  under  the  eaves"  of  the  house 
on  Herbert  Street,  not  far  from  where  he  was  born,  he 
developed  through  the  next  twelve  years  his- powerful  and 
original  literary  style.  All  the  members  of  the  family  were 
seclusive  in  their  habits.  The  two  sisters  kept  to  their 
rooms,  the  mother  had  -her  meals  served  in  her  separate 
apartment,  and  naturally  in  such  a  household  Hawthorne 
developed  to  the  fullest  extent  what  he  called  his  "cursed 
habit  of  solitude."  He  published  anonymously  an  immature 
novel  called  Fanshawe  in  1828',  but  he  afterwards  wished 
to  withdraw  it  from  circulation.  He  became  extremely 
fastidious  about  the  finish  and  style  of  his  work,  and  it  is 
said  that  during  this  period  of  his  literary  apprenticeship 
he  wrote  and  rewrote  and  then  burned  many  tales  and 
sketches.  He  published  a  few  pieces  in  The  New  England 
Magazine  and  in  the  early  issues  of  The  Token,  a  Boston 
annual;  and  under  G.  C.  Goodrich's  editorship  of  The  Token 
he  increased  his  contributions  to  this  annual  so  that  within 
a  few  years  he  had  published  enough  stories  to  make  up 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     171 

the  first  edition  of  the  happily  christened  Twice-Told  Tales 
(1837).     This   volume   was   subsequently    (1842)    enlarged 


THE  GREAT  STONE  FACE 

from  eighteen  to  thirty-nine  tales,  and  it  has  since  held  its 
place  as  one  of  the  few  permanent  short-story  collections  in 
our  literature.  Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse  (1846)  and' 
The  Snow  Image  and  Other  Twice-Told  Tales  (1852)  are 
similar  collections.  Except  for  the  work  of  Poe  and  Irving 
nothing  has  yet  appeared  in  our  literature  that  can  be  com 
pared  with  these  tales  for  finish  of  style,  literary  art,  and 
profound  analysis  of  the  various  phases  of  human  life. 
Part  of  them  are  mere  sketches  or  essays,  others  are  based 
on  historical  incidents,  but  most  of  them  are  works  of  pure 
fancy  and  imagination.  Even  when  the  skeleton  or  basal 
facts  are  historical,  the  real  flesh  and  blood,  the  creative 
part  of  the  story,  is  almost  entirely  imaginative  and  original. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  select  the  best  of  these  stories  for 


172  History  of  American  Literature 

special  mention.  Every  critic  of  the  volumes  seems  to 
light  upon  different  ones  as  the  best,  and  no  two  persons 
are  found  to  agree.  The  following  stories  have  met  with 
general  approval  and  certainly  represent  Hawthorne's  art 
at  its  best:  "The  Birthmark,"  "Dr.  Heidegger's  Experi 
ment,"  "The  Minister's  Black  Veil,"  "The  Great  Stone 
Face,"  "Rappaccini's  Daughter,"  "Young  Goodman 
Brown,"  "The  Great  Carbuncle,"  "The  Ambitious  Guest," 
and  "The  Wedding-Knell." 

Hawthorne's  love  affair.  It  was  the  publication  of  Twice- 
Told  Tales  that  led  to  Hawthorne's  acquaintance,  and  later 
engagement  and  marriage,  with  Miss  Sophia  Peabody. 
Elizabeth  Peabody,  the  elder  sister,  became  interested  in 
the  author  of  these  exquisite  short  stories,  and  through  her 
friendship  with  Hawthorne's  sisters  she  invited  him  to 
call  at  her  home.  Here  he  met  the  youngest  of  the  three 
sisters,  Sophia,  and  even  though  she  was  something  of  an 
invalid  at  this  time,  her  bright,  well-trained  mind  and  her 
artistic  temperament — for  she  was  gifted  with  brush  and 
pencil — attracted  the  romancer  from  his  social  seclusion. 
Her  beneficent  influence  caused  the  petals  of  his  soul  to 
expand  like  a  flower  in  the  spring  sunshine.  She  was  like 
wise  attracted  by  his  classic  features  and  athletic  physique 
as  well  as  by  the  wonderful  charm  of  his  mind.  Their 
love  story,  since  given  to  the  public  in  Hawthorne's  letters, 
is  one  of  the  sweetest  and  happiest  in  the  annals  of  literature. 
She  gave  him  encouragement  and  stimulus  and  love,  and  he 
gave  her  life  and  home  and  happiness.  Her  health  improved 
after  her  marriage,  and  three  children  were  born  to  them, 
Una,  Julian,  and  Rose. 

His  life  in  the  "Old  Manse."  But  when  Hawthorne  met 
Miss  Peabody  he  was  not  able  to  support  an  invalid  wife; 
so  the  engagement  ran  on  for  four  years  before  the  marriage 
took  place  in  1842.  George  Bancroft,  in  the  meantime,  used 
his  influence  to  have  Hawthorne  appointed  to  the  position 


THE  OLD  MANSE,  CONCORD 


174  History  of  American  Literature 

of  weigher  and  gauger  at  the  Boston  Custom  House.  He 
labored  at  this,  to  him,  unsavory  task  for  two  years,  and 
then  took  his  savings  of  one  thousand  dollars  and  invested 
them  in  the  impractical  social  community  of  Brook  Farm, 
a  transcendental  experiment  in  which  physical  labor  and 
intellectual  activities  were  to  be  alternately  and  equally 
enjoyed.  The  experiment  proved  a  failure,  of  course,  and 
Hawthorne  lost  his  money.  In  spite  of  this  serious  loss, 
however,  he  determined  now  to  marry.  He  took  his  wife 
to  the  Old  Manse  in  Concord,  the  house  already  made 
famous  by  Emerson's  residence  in  it,  and  now  made  doubly 
so  by  Hawthorne's  occupancy;  and  there  he  began  the  long 
and  desperate  struggle  of  making  a  living  by  his  pen.  The 
story  of  these  impecunious  years  has  been  fully  told  by  the 
family  letters,  and  the  happy  way  in  which  the  couple  met 
their  difficulties  will  always  arouse  interest.  Once  Mrs. 
Hawthorne,  noticing  a  large  rent  in  one  of  her  husband's 
garments,  remarked  that  it  was  strange  they  did  not 
have  more  ready  money,  since  her  husband  was  a  man  of 
such  large  rents.  She  fairly  worshiped  him,  and  he  was  as 
devoted  to  her,  and  this  made  these  years  of  poverty  not 
only  endurable  but  happy. 

"The  Scarlet  Letter."  Friends  came  to  the  rescue  again, 
and  Hawthorne  was  appointed  collector,  or  surveyor,  of  the 
port  of  Salem.  This  gave  him  a  better  immediate  income, 
but  for  a  time  cut  off  his  literary  productivity.  He  planned 
a  larger  work  on  the  basis  of  some  old  records  which  he 
found  in  the  office  at  Salem,  but  the  work  did  not  progress 
satisfactorily.  When  he  announced  his  removal  from  office 
in  1849,  Mrs.  Hawthorne  •  complacently  remarked,  "Oh, 
then  you  can  write  your  book!"  And  when  the  distressed 
husband  wanted  to  know  what  they  could  live  on  while  it 
was  being  written,  she  disclosed  a  pile  of  gold  coins  which 
she  had  saved  out  of  her  weekly  allowance  for  household 
expenses  and  hidden  away  for  just  such  an  emergency.  The 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     175 

book  was  written :  it  was  The  Scarlet  Letter,  by  common  con 
sent  designated  as  the  one  absolutely  great  masterpiece  of 
fiction  in  all  American  literature.  Hawthorne's  friend, 
James  T.  Field,  the  publisher,  came  over  from  Boston 
toward  the  end  of  the  year  and  found  the  germ  of  the  manu 
script  already  in  shape,  and  in  1850  the  enlarged  romance 
was  published.  It  took  the  public  by  storm  and  has  ever 
since  retained  its  position  as  the  greatest  American  novel. 
The  story  is  one  of  gloom  and  tragedy.  It  sets  forth  the 
gradual  purification  of  one  sinner  through  open  confession 
and  the  slow  torture  of  another  through  hypocritical  con 
cealment.  Hester  Prynne  bears  the  scarlet  letter  A  on  her 
breast  as  a  punishment  for  the  sin  of  adultery,  while  the 
minister,  Arthur  Dimmesdale,  the  partner  of  her  crime, 
conceals  his  guilt  and  suffers  the  tortures  of  the  damned 
until,  in  the  tragic  climax  of  the  story,  he  openly  confesses 
his  sin.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  Hawthorne's 
character  creations  is  the  innocent,  fairy-like  Pearl,  the 
offspring  of  the  unholy  passion.  The  child  adds  a  touch  of 
haunting  beauty  to  an  otherwise  gloomy  and  depressing  tale. 
"  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables."  After  the  phenomenal 
success  of  The  Scarlet  Letter,  Hawthorne's  period  of  being 
what  he  called  "the  obscurest  man  of  letters  in  America" 
was  over.  He  moved  to  "the  little  red  cottage"  near  Lenox 
in  the  Berkshire  Hills  of  western  Massachusetts,  and 
here  he  wrote  the  second  of  his  four  great  romances,  The 
House  of  the  Seven  Gables  (1851).  Of  all  Hawthorne's  longer 
works  this  one  is  by  far  the  most  attractive  to  young  readers. 
The  theme  is  the  hereditary  transmission  of  sin  from  genera 
tion  to  generation.  The  scene  is  laid  in  the  familiar  haunts 
of  Salem,  the  very  house  with  its  seven  gables  being  still 
pointed  out  to  visitors  as  the  original  of  Hawthorne's  story. 
There  is  in  the  realistic  portrayal  of  this  quaint  old  New 
England  town  and  some  of  its  queer  inhabitants  a  touch  of 
humor  which  brightens  up  the  somewhat  somber  coloring 


176 


History  of  American  Literature 


of  the  romance;  and  the  love  story  of  Phoebe  Pyncheon  and 
Holgrave  increases  the  interest  and  affords  a  satisfactory 
solution  of  the  former  enmity  between-  the  two  families. 


THE  HOUSE  OP  SEVEN  GABLES,  SALEM 

Juvenile  books.  To  the  Lenox  period  belong  also  those 
delightful  books  for  young  readers,  The  Wonder-Book  (1852) 
and  Tanglewood  Tales  (1853),  both  based  on  the  old  Greek 
and  Roman  hero  myths.  These  stories  are  by  no  means 
mere  mechanical  reproductions  of  the  old  classical  myths. 
Hawthorne  allowed  himself  great  freedom  in  his  treatment, 
and  found  great  pleasure  in  reminting  through  his  own 
imagination  these  world-old  fables.  When  we  take  into 
consideration  these  two  volumes  together  with  Grandfather's 
Chair  (1841),  a  series  of  historical  tales,  and  many  other 
juvenile  stories  scattered  through  his  earlier  volumes  of 
tales,  such  for  example,  as  "The  Snow  Image"  and  "Little 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     177 

Daffy downdilly,"  we  are  led  to  the  conclusion  that 
Hawthorne's  contributions  to  our  juvenile  classics  are 
very  important. 

"The  Blithedale  Romance."  During  1852  Hawthorne 
moved  nis  family  to  West  Newton,  a  suburb  of  Boston, 
and  here  he  produced  his  third  great  novel,  The  Blithedale 
Romance,  reflecting  largely  his  experiences  at  Brook  Farm 
in  Roxbury,  not  very  far  from  West  Newton.  This  is  the 
least  satisfactory  of  the  four  greater  romances,  but  it  con 
tains  among  others  one  striking  feminine  character  study, 
that  of  Zenobia,  supposed  to  be  based  on  that  remarkable 
woman,  Margaret  Fuller  Ossoli. 

Life  abroad:  (<The  Marble  Faun.1'  Hawthorne  had  not 
yet  found  the  home  to  suit  him,  and  so  he  purchased  the 
old  house  of  the  Alcotts  in  Concord  near  Emerson's  resi 
dence,  and  christened  it  "The  Wayside."  Here,  in  1852, 
he  wrote  a  campaign  life  of  his  old  college  friend  Franklin 
Pierce,  who  was  now  a  candidate  for  the  presidency. 
Naturally,  upon  being  elected  to  the  presidency,  Pierce 
desired  to  reward  his  friend  and  supporter,  and  consequently 
he  appointed  Hawthorne  to  be  consul  at  Liverpool.  This 
was  a  lucrative  position,  and  the  income  from  the  office, 
together  with  the  increased  returns  from  his  books,  put 
Hawthorne  and  his  family  above  want  for  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  did  not  enjoy  the  work  nor  the  honors  of 
his  new  position,  but  he  went  through  the  routine  with 
the  same  punctilious  devotion  to  duty  that  he  had  shown 
in  his  previous  official  positions.  The  literary  results  of 
this  residence  abroad  were  Our  Old  Home,  a  Series  of  English 
Sketches,  published  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly  some  years 
later,  and  the  fourth  of  his  great  romances,  The  Marble 
Faun,  written  at  Rome  and  published  in  England  under  the 
title  The  Transformed  in  1860.  This  is  a  rather  mystical 
story  and  is  not  usually  pleasing  to  young  readers;  but  it 
contains  many  excellent  descriptions  of  points  of  interest  in 


178  History  of  American  Literature 

Rome,  and  much  profound  character  study,  particularly 
of  the  hero,  Donatello,  the  young  Italian  -who  resembles  the 
famous  old  marble  statue  of  a  satyr  or  faun  which  the 
author  found  in  Rome; 

Hawthorne's  later  works.  After  the  appearance  of  The 
Marble  Faun,  Hawthorne  returned  to  his  home  in  Concord. 
Here  he  attempted  some  further  literary  work,  but  his 
health  was  gradually  giving  way,  and  the  old  creative  impulse 
was  almost  gone.  He  started  several  romances,  among  them 
Septimus  Felton,  Dr.  Grimshaw's  Secret,  and  The  Dolliver 
Romance,  but  none  of  them  was  satisfactorily  completed. 
Then  in  a  vain  search  for  health,  he  went  on  a  carriage 
trip  with  Franklin  Pierce  through  the  mountain  regions  of 
New  Hampshire.  When  they  reached  Portsmouth,  his 
strength  gave  out  and  he  died  alone  in  his  room  in  an  inn, 
May  17,  1864.  He  was  buried  in  Sleepy  Hollow  Cemetery, 
his  grave  being  now  marked  with  a  plain  marble  headstone, 
not  more  than  a  foot  high,  bearing  the  simple  inscription 
"HAWTHORNE." 

General  estimate  of  Hawthorne's  work.  Three  things 
make  Hawthorne's  work  great — first,  the  originality  and 
spontaneity  of  his  imaginative  conceptions;  second,  the  fun 
damental  moral  truth  and  spiritual  purity  underlying  these 
conceptions;  and  third,  the  supreme  artistry  of  the  form  of 
expression  in  which  he  has  presented  these  conceptions. 
No  writer  in  America  has  depended  more  absolutely  and 
more  consistently  on  his  own  ideas  and  instincts  as  to  what 
material  was  best  suited  to  his  genius.  Hawthorne's  work 
is  unique  because  his  genius  was  unique  and  because  he 
allowed  it  to  mature  slowly  and  naturally,  without  the 
intermixture  of  foreign  elements  or  the  distraction  of  foreign 
models.  There  is  no  English  author  with  whom  we  care  to 
compare  him,  for  he  was  too  original,  too  much  himself  to 
be  like  any  one  of  them.  In  the  second  place,  while  he 
dealt  with  sin  and  the  human  conscience  and  some  of  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     179 

darker  aspects  of  life,  he  handled  these  problems  with  the 
utmost  purity  of  conception.  The  Scarlet  Letter,  for  example, 
deals  with  an  abhorred  sin,  but  there  never  was  a  purer 
book  nor  a  more  powerful  appeal  for  Christlike  charity 
toward  those  who  have  sinned  and  felt  all  the  awful  pangs  of 
expiation  and  the  final  purification  of  character  through 
repentance  and  steadfast  resistance.  So  it  is  with  all  Haw 
thorne's  works;  there  is  not  a  word  of  sacrilege,  nor  a  hint 
of  encouragement  to  the  evil-doer,  nor  a  cause  for  a  blush 
on  the  cheek  of  the  purest-minded  maiden.  Finally,  Haw 
thorne  is  a  supreme  artist.  His  manner  of  expression  sits 
as  naturally  on  him  as  his  own  features.  There  is  no  strut, 
no  superficial  veneer,  no  painfully  evident  striving  after 
effect,  no  trick  or  artifice;  on  the  contrary  every  word  and 
phrase  is  as  natural  and  easy  and  spontaneous  as  the  con 
ception  which  gave  it  birth.  The  picturesqueness,  the  vivid 
character  portrayal,  the  music  and  rhythm  of  his  prose 
cadences,  the  apt  and  precise  diction,  the  dominant  tone  of 
spirituality,  the  suggestive  other- worldliness — in  short,  the 
pure  art  of  his  prose  style  —  all  this  undoubtedly  places  him 
in  the  first  rank  of  American  literary  artists.1 

Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow.  Whenever  American 
poets  are  mentioned,  the  name  that  flashes  at  once  into  the 
mind  at  the  head  of  the  list  is  that  of  Henry  Wadsworth 
Longfellow  (1807-1882) .  Like  Washington,  but  in  a  literary 
rather  than  in  a  political  sense,  he  is  "first  in  the  hearts  of 
his  countrymen. "  He  has  produced  a  larger  body  of  poetry 
than  has  any  other  of  our  poets,  his  poems  are  more  famil 
iarly  read  and  quoted  than  are  the  works  of  any  of  our  cUher 
writers,  and  he  has  been  more  widely  translated  and  more 
prominently  recognized  abroad,  particularly  in  England,  as 
the  most  representative,  if  not  the  most  original  and  power 
ful,  of  our  poets. 

iThe  best  life  of  Hawthorne  is  by  George  E.  Woodberry  in  the  American 
Men  of  Letters  Series.  Henry  James,  Jr.,  has  also  written  a  brilliant 
criticism  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series. 


i8o  History  of  American  Literature 

His  youth  and  education.  Longfellow  is  the  only  one  of 
the  more  distinguished  New  England  men  of  letters  born 
outside  the  present  borders  of  Massachusetts;  and  Portland, 
Maine,  his  birthplace,  was  really  a  part  of  Massachusetts 
at  the  time  of  his  birth,  February  27,  1807.  He  was  a 
student  at  Bowdoin  College,  and  graduated  in  1825  with 
Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  several  other  men  who  rose  to 
prominence.  Longfellow's  father  was  a  lawyer,  and  he  had 
proposed  to  give  his  son  a  legal  education  after  he  finished 
college ;  but  in  his  senior  year  the  young  man  confessed  in  a 
letter  to  his  father  his  aspiration  for  future  eminence  in  litera 
ture.  "Whether  Nature  has  given  me  any  capacity  for 
knowledge  or  not,  she  has  at  any  rate  given  me  a  strong 
predilection  for  literary  pursuits,  and  I  am  almost  confident 
in  believing  that  if  I  can  ever  rise  in  the  world,  it  must  be 
by  the  exercise  of  my  talent  in  the  wide  field  of  literature. 
With  such  a  belief,  I  must  say  that  I  am  unwilling  to  engage 
in  the  study  of  law. " 

Longfellow's  first  period  of  European  travel  and  study. 
After  graduation  at  Bowdoin,  he  had  asked  the  privilege  of 
spending  a  year  in  studying  what  was  then  called  belles- 
lettres,  or  polite  literature,  at  Harvard  College.  His  father 
consented,  but  the  trustees  of  Bowdoin  College  offered  the 
young  graduate  a  professorship  in  modern  languages  on  the 
condition  that  he  should  go  abroad  for  study  at  his  own 
expense.  His  father  furnished  the  money,  and  the  pro 
spective  professor,  then  but  nineteen,  sailed  for  Europe.  He 
spent  three  years  studying  the  languages  and  literatures  of 
France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany.  This  contact  with 
European  literature  and  culture  was  the  best  possible 
preparation  for  his  later  work  as  a  poet. 

His  work  as  a  teacher:  second  trip  abroad.  He  returned 
to  Bowdoin  and  began  his  work  as  a  teacher  in  1829.  He 
had  not  only  to  do  all  the  work  of  directing  his  classes  in 
the  various  foreign  languages,  but  also  to  prepare  elementary 


From  a  painting  by  Healy  in  the  possession 
of  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts 


HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW 


1 82  History  of  American  Literature 

textbooks  for  the  guidance  of  his  pupils.  He  did  his  work 
well,  and  in  1834  he  was  called  to  succeed  George  Ticknor 
as  Smith  professor  of  French  and  Spanish  at  Harvard  College. 
In  April,  1835,  he  sailed  again  to  Europe  for  another  year 
and  a  half  of  study.  In  1831  he  had  married  Miss  Mary 
Potter  of  Portland,  and  he  took  his  wife  with  him.  Her 
health  was  delicate,  and  she  died  in  Rotterdam,  Holland, 
some  months  later.  She  is  fittingly  commemorated  in  the 
poem  called  "Footsteps  of  Angels." 

His  professorship  at  Harvard.  Partly  to  bury  himself 
from  his  grief  and  partly  in  preparation  for  his  future  work 
at  Harvard,  the  poet  plunged  into  the  study  of  German 
language  and  literature.  He  made  good  progress,  and  by 
the  summer  of  1836  he  was  ready  to  return  to  America  to 
enter  upon  his  professorship.  When  he  went  to  Cambridge, 
he  was  directed  to  the  home  of  Mrs.  Craigie,  who  owned  the 
famous  old  Craigie  House  where  General  Washington  once 
had  his  headquarters  during  the  Revolutionary  War. 
Mrs.  Craigie  at  first  refused  to  accept  him,  thinking  that  he 
was  a  college  student,  but  when  she  learned  that  he  was  the 
new  professor  and  the  author  of  Outre  Mer  she  gave  him 
rooms  in  her  "home.  When  Longfellow  married  Miss  Frances 
Appleton  in  1843,  his  father-in-law  made  them  a  present  of 
Craigie  House,  which  has  since  become  a  sort  of  literary 
shrine  for  pilgrims  from  all  over  the  world.  There  Long 
fellow  lived  the  remainder  of  his  life.  After  eighteen  years 
of  service  he  resigned  his  professorship  to  James  Russell 
Lowell,  but  he  continued  to  live  in  Cambridge  and  take  a 
lively  interest  in  the  affairs  of  the  university. 

Longfellow's  prose.  Longfellow's  prose  works  are  Outre 
Mer,  "Beyond  the  Sea"  (1833),  a  sort  of  imitation  of 
Irving's  Sketch  Book  with  scenes  drawn  from  France,  Spain, 
and  Italy;  Hyperion  (1839),  a  sentimentalized  romance 
interspersed  with  German  legends,  translation,  and  bits  of 
description;  and  Kavanagh  (1849),  a  realistic  novel  of  rural 


184  History  of  American  Literature 

New  England  life.  These  have  been  overshadowed  by  the 
greater  popularity  of  his  poetical  works,  but  the  last  two  in 
particular  are  well  worth  a  perusal,  especially  while  one  is 
young.  The  style  is  perhaps  too  highly  colored  and  the 
stories  too  sentimental  for  the  more  robust  modern  taste, 
but  these  works  give  Longfellow  a  right  to  a  place  in  the 
history  of  American  romantic  prose. 

Longfellow's  early  poems.  The  history  of  Longfellow's 
poetical  production  begins  .at  least  in  his  thirteenth  year 
when  the  Portland  Gazette  published  his  "Battle  of  L 3 veil's 
Pond."  He  continued  to  write  poetry  from  this  time  until 
his  death  in  1882.*  His  first  volume  of  verse,  Voices  of  the 
Night,  was  published  in  1839;  in  1841  Ballads  and  Othsr 
Poems  appeared;  and  in  1845,  The  Belfry  of  Bruges  and 
Other  Poems.  In  the  first  of  these  volumes  appeared  such 
favorites  as  "A  Psalm  of  Life,"  "The  Light  of  Stars," 
"The  Beleaguered  City,"  and  "Hymn  to  the  Night";  in 
the  second  "The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,"  "Maidenhood," 
"The  Village  Blacksmith,"  "The  Skeleton  in  Armor,"  "The 
Rainy  Day,"  and  "Excelsior";  in  the  third  "The  Bridge," 
"The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs,"  and  "The  Arrow  and  the 
Song. ' '  Other  volumes  of  poetry  appeared  from  time  to  time, 
up  to  his  death,  but  these  have  now  all  been  included  in  his 
collected  works  and  need  not  be  mentioned  separately  here. 

"The  Building  of  the  Ship."  The  volume  called  The 
Seaside  and  the  Fireside  appeared  late  in  1849,  the  opening 
poem  being  "The  Building  of  the  Ship,"  Longfellow's  chief 
contribution  to  our  national  patriotic  poetry.  It  is  a  master 
piece  of  its  kind,  for  it  may  be  said  of  the  poet  as  of  the 
builder  of  the  ship, 

His  heart  was  in  his  work, 

And  the  heart  giveth  grace  unto  every  art. 

Longfellow  takes  up  the  building  of  a  ship  from  the  planning 
to  the  final  launching,  and  by  a  skilful  introduction  of  a 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     185 

dedicatory  speech  by  the  old  master,  makes  an  extended 
comparison  of  the  whole  with  human  life;  and  then,  at  the 
climax,  rises  to  a  magnificent  conclusion  in  which  he  com 
pares  our  government  to  a  stately  ship  under  sail,  a  passage 
which  every  one  should  memorize. 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State! 

Sail  on,  O  UNION,  strong  and  great! 

Humanity  with  all  its  fears, 

With  all  the  hopes  of  future  years, 

Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate! 

We  know  what  Master  laid  thy  keel, 

What  Workman  wrought  thy  ribs  of  steel, 

Who  made  each  mast,  and  sail,  and  rope, 

What  anvils  rang,  what  hammers  beat, 

In  what  a  forge  and  what  a  heat 

Were  shaped  the  anchors  of  thy  hope! 

Fear  not  each  sudden  sound  and  shock, 

'T  is  of  the  wave  and  not  the  rock; 

T  is  but  the  flapping  of  a  sail, 

And  not  a  rent  made  by  the  gale! 

In  spite  of  rock  and  tempest's  roar, 

In  spite  of  false  lights  on  the  shore, 

Sail  on,  nor  fear  to  breast  the  sea! 

Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  are  all  with  thee, 

Our  hearts,  our  hopes,  our  prayers,  our  tears, 

Our  faith  triumphant  o'er  our  fears, 

Are  all  with  thee,  —  are  all  with  thee. 

1  'Evangeline. ' '  The  enthusiastic  and  widespread  reception 
accorded  these  early  volumes  led  the  poet  to  essay  greater 
themes.  His  mind  was  steeped  in  European  literature, 
but  more  and  more  he  was  turning  to  American  life,  legend, 
and  history  for  his  subjects.  In  1847  appeared  what  is  now 
recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  his  works,  Evangeline, 
the  epic-idyl  of  the  Anglo-French  conflict  for  supremacy  on 
the  North  American  continent.  We  have  no  hesitancy  in 
pronouncing  Evangeline  one  of  the  supreme  poetical  treasures 
of  our  literature.  Every  American  school  child  reads  its 

13 


i86 


History  of  American  Literature 


long,  musical  hexameters  with  pleasure  and  profit.     The 
story  is  a  beautiful  one,  and  Longfellow  has  decorated  it 


From  the  painting  by  Thomas  Praed 


EVANGELINE 


with  many  exquisite  figures  of  speech,  and  much  rich, 
native  color  and  heart-moving  sentiment.  The  haunt-, 
ing  melody  of  the  " deep-voiced  neighboring  ocean""  and:; 
the  "mournful  tradition,  still  sung  by  the  pines  of  the  forest " 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     187 

linger  in  every  ear  as  a  sort  of  perpetual  benediction. 
The  characters,  too,  stand  out  in  bold  relief  in  our  memories 
—  the  gentle  and  patient  Evangeline,  the  restless  and  unsat 
isfied  Gabriel,  the  heart-broken  Benedict  Belief ontaine,  the 
faithful  Father  Felician,  the  fiery,  stout-hearted  Basil,  and 
merry  Michael  the  fiddler.  All  in  all,  Evangeline  is  the 
most  successful  narrative  poem  in  our  literature. 

Longfellow's  other  great  narrative  poems.  Other  great 
narrative  works  followed,  such  as  Hiawatha  (1855),  The 
Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  (1858),  and  Tales  of  a  Wayside 
Inn  (1863).  Some  have  pronounced  Hiawatha  the  most 
original  poetical  contribution  to  our  literature,  and  others 
have  hailed  it  as  the  only  truly  American  epic.  It  presents 
an  idealized  picture  of  the  American  Indian  and  is  a  won 
derful  storehouse  of  native  myth  and  legend.  Its  peculiar 
trochaic  octosyllabic  rhythm,  borrowed  from  the  Finnish 
national  epic  Kalevala,  gives  it  an  antique  flavor,  and  its 
rich  massing  of  Indian  folklore  helps  to  make  it  a  perennial 
favorite  with  young  readers.  But  in  spite  of  its  originality, 
its  aboriginal  American  coloring,  and  its  appealing  beauty, 
we  are  inclined  to  rank  it  below  Evangeline  in  artistic  power 
and  fundamental  human  appeal.  The  Courtship  of  Miles 
Standish  is  deservedly  popular,  though  Longfellow  does  not 
seem  to  handle  the  hexameter  in  this  happier-toned  poem 
so  well  as  he  did  in  the  more  melancholy  and  solemn-toned 
Evangeline.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  Longfellow  traced 
his  ancestry  on  his  mother's  side  back  to  John  and  Priscilla 
Alden,  the  hero  and  heroine  of  the  romance  in  The  Courtship 
of  Miles  Standish.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  is  modeled  on 
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales.  The  characters  gathered  in  the 
old  inn  at  Sudbury  near  Cambridge  are  described  in  the 
Prelude  very  much  as  Chaucer's  Canterbury  pilgrims  are 
presented  in  the  Prologue.  The  first  of  the  tales,  "Paul 
Revere's  Ride,"  told  by  the  landlord,  has  proved  to  be  the 
most  popular,  though  the  poet's  tale,  at  the  end  of  the 


1 88  History  of  American  Literature 

first  series,  "The  Birds  of  Killingworth,"  is  more  original, 
being  one  of  the  few  stories  of  Longfellow's  own  invention. 

Longfellow's  works  in  dramatic  form.  Although  Long 
fellow  wrote  some  dramas,  he  did  not  possess  a  strong  dra 
matic  gift.  The  Spanish  Student,  a  play  in  three  acts,  appeared 
in  1843.  With  a  beautiful  Spanish  dancing  girl  as  heroine 
and  a  dashing  Spanish  student  as  hero,  one  might  think  that 
the  poet  would  have  produced  a  good  strong  play;  but  such 
is  not  the  case.  It  is  a  dramatic  poem  or  closet  drama  rather 
than  a  good  acting  play.  And  so  it  is  with  Longfellow's 
other  attempts  at  dramatization.  The  Golden  Legend 
(1851),  later  included  as  the  second  part  of  the  Christus 
trilogy,  is  in  dramatic  form,  but  it  is  merely  a  poem  on 
an  old  German  legend,  interpreting  rather  beautifully 
some  phases  of  medieval  life.  The  other  two  parts  of  the 
Christus,  namely,  The  New  England  Tragedies  (1868)  and 
The  Divine  Tragedy  (1872),  are  now  ranked  as  practical 
failures  in  spite  of  the  high  estimate  which  the  poet  put 
upon  this  work  of  his  later  years.  The  Masque  of  Pandora 
is  another  dramatic  work.  It  was  put  on  the  stage  in  Boston 
in  1 88 1,  but  it  failed  to  attract  audiences. 

His  translation  of  Dante.  The  last  large  work  done  by 
Longfellow  was  his  excellent  translation  of  Dante's  Dimna 
Commedia.  He  had  contemplated  this  task  for  some  years 
and  had  done  something  on  it,  but  it  was  not  until  after  the 
death  of  his  wife  that  he  set  himself  seriously  to  complete 
the  translation.  He  finally  published  it  in  1870,  prefixing 
to  each  of  the  three  parts  two  original  sonnets  of  surpassing 
beauty.  The  personal  reference  to  the  loss  of  his  wife  in 
the  first  of  these  sonnets  is  particularly  pathetic.  Her 
dress  caught  fire,  and  before  her  husband  could  put  out  the 
flames  she  was  burned  so  badly  that  she  died  within  a  short 
time. 

His  last  visit  to  Europe:  later  honors.  Longfellow  made  his 
last  visit  to  Europe  in  1 868.  He  was  received  everywhere  with 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     189 

enthusiasm.     In  England  he  met  many  celebrated  literary 
and  public  men,  was  invited  to  dine  with  the  queen,  and  was 


From  a  painting  by  A .  Fredericks 
PRISCILLA  AND  JOHN  ALDEN 

given  an  honorary  degree  by  Cambridge  University.  It  is 
said  that  his  works  were  as  well  known  in  England  as  Tenny 
son's,  and  naturally  the  masses  of  the  people,  as  well  as  the 
notable  persons,  were  glad  to  welcome  one  who  had  given 
them  so  much  pleasure.  And  at  home  he  was  similarly 


History  of  American  Literature 

honored.  On- his  seventy-second  birthday,  the  Cambridge 
school  children  presented  to  him  a  chair  made  from  the 
wood  of  "the  spreading  chestnut  tree"  of  "The  Village 
Blacksmith"  fame,  and  the  schools  of  the  whole  country 
celebrated  his  seventy-fifth  birthday.  He  died  on  March 
24,  1882,  and  was  buried  in  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery, 
Cambridge.  Longfellow  is  the  only  American  poet  who  has 
been  honored  with  a  memorial  in  the  Poet's  Corner1  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

A  general  estimate  of  Longfellow.  We  usually  say  that 
Longfellow  is  the  most  popular  of  our  poets,  and  yet  he  is 
not  an  American  of  the  most  characteristic  type.  He  lived 
in  an  academic  atmosphere  all  his  life,  and  he  represented 
the  older  European  culture  more  than'  he  did  the  fresh, 
vigorous  American  life.  He  knew  books  and  life  through 
books  better  than  he  knew  men  and  life  through  actual 
contact  with  the  busy  world.  But  he  was  by  no  means  a 
recluse;  in  fact,  he  was  conspicuously  generous  in  giving  his 
time  and  personality  to  the  entertainment  of  Americans  and 
foreigners  who  sought  him  out.  And  it  is  said  that  his 
doors  were  never  closed  against  the  children.  But  after 
all,  he  spent  his  life  largely  amid  books — writing,  teaching, 
reading,  absorbing  the  literatures  of  many  nations.  He 
felt  deeply,  but  not  passionately,  and  he  controlled  his 
emotions  perfectly,  both  in  life  and  in  his  poetry.  He  was 
no  eager  reformer  or  wild  devotee  burning  with  the  white 
heat  of  enthusiasm  and  passion,  but  a  calm,  sober-minded, 
peace-loving,  home-loving  bard.  "Although  he  is  not 
necessarily  among  the  twelve  greatest  poets  of  the  world, 
he  is  incontestably  a  great  benefactor  and  a  great  man." 

An  answer  to  Longfellow's  critics.     During  recent  years 


1The  Longfellow  bust  was  subscribed  for  by  the  poet's  English  admirers  in 
1884.  A  few  years  later  a  fine  medallion  in  honor  of  James  Russell  Lowell 
as  American  Minister  to  the  Court  of  St.  James  was  placed  in  the  Chapter 
House  of  the  Abbey,  the  room  in  which  the  House  of  Commons  met  from 
1282  to  1547. 


iQ2  History  of  American  Literature 

there  has  been  a  tendency  among  some  of  the  more  sophis 
ticated  critics  to  speak  slightingly  of  Longfellow's  genius. 
They  accuse  him  of  being  over-moral,  sentimental,  simple, 
commonplace,  unimaginative.  They  admit  the  popularity 
and  power  of  his  work  so  far  as  the  general  public  is  con 
cerned,  but  they  immediately  dodge  behind  the  insinuating 
query,  "Is  it  art?"  To  all  such  critics  we  reply  that  to 
touch  the  hearts  of  a  whole  people,  to  inspire  youth  and 
comfort  age,  to  express  the  profoundest  ideals  of  the  indi 
vidual  and  the  national  life  in  pleasing  and  enduring  literary 
form  is  art  of  the  only  kind  worthy  of  attention.  It  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  time  will  not  soon  come  when  American 
youths  shall  be  robbed  of  the  pleasure  and  inspiration  that 
come  to  them  from  reading  the  simple,  heart-moving  poems 
of  Henry  W.  Longfellow.1 

John  Greenle^f  Whittier.  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  (1807- 
1892)  has  been  called  "The  Poet  Laureate  of  New  England," 
"The  Quaker  Poet,"  "The  Burns  of  America."  Any  one 
of  these  titles  may  be  aptly  applied  to  him,  but  perhaps  the 
first  is  most  suggestive  of  his  real  service  to  American 
literature.  He  is  called  the  Burns  of  America  because,  like 
the  Scotch  poet,  he  was  born  on  a  farm  and  reared  amid  the 
usual  isolation  and  hardships  incident  to  farm  life  in  his  day, 
and  because,  like  Burns,  he  wrote  most  successfully  about 
the  things  immediately  connected  with  this  rural  life  into 
which  he  was  born.  But  he  lacked  the  Scotch  singer's 
alertness  for  things  of  sense,  his  fiery  passion,  his  keen  ear 
for  music,  and  hence  in  lyric  power  he  falls  far  below  the 
peasant  bard.  He  is  called  the  Quaker  poet  because  he 
voiced  the  deepest  religious  moods  of  that  particular  sect. 
He  was  born  a  Quaker,  and  clung  to  this  quiet,  self-denying 


!The  standard  life  of  Longfellow  is  that  by  his  brother,  Samuel  Longfellow. 
This  three-volume  book  contains  a  great  many  letters  and  extracts  from 
Longfellow's  Journals,  and  is  a  storehouse  of  information  about  the  poet. 
A  good  short  life  of  Longfellow  is  that  by  E.  S.  Robertson  in  the  Great 
Writers  Series. 


JOHN  GREEXLEAF  WHITTIER 


1 94  History  of  American  Literature 

form  of  religion  throughout  his  life.  He  inherited  from 
his  ancestors  that  strict  conscience  and  deeply  religious 
nature  which  he  poured  forth  in  his  hymns  and  moral  odes. 
In  fact,  his  sense  for  morality  was  so  strong  that  it  not 
infrequently  overshadowed  and  obscured  what  little  instinct 
he  possessed  for  pure  art.  But  above  all  he  was,  and  is 
still,  the  poet  laureate  of  New  England  life.  He  has  taken 
the  local  legends  and  ballads  and  enshrined  them  in  perma 
nent  art  forms.  He  has  painted  the  most  perfect  pictures 
of  the  rigid  New  England  climate,  and  of  the  exquisite  New 
England  rural  landscape,  its  hills  and  valleys,  its  fields  and 
flowers,  its  coasts  and  rivers.  He  has  given  the 'most  accu 
rate  portraits  of  the  native  New  England  population  in 
all  the  simplicity,  purity,  and  charm  of  that  unsophisticated 
class  of  which  he  was  himself  a  member. 

The  Whittier  household.  Whittier  was  born  December  17, 
1807,  near  East  Haverhill,  a  small  country  village  in  north 
east  Massachusetts.  He  has  given  us  in  "Snow-Bound"  a 
broad,  sweeping  winter  picture  of  his  birthplace,  the  old 
homestead  built  by  his  early  Puritan  ancestor,  Thomas 
Whittier ;  and  a  minutely  drawn  summer  picture  of  the  same 
spQt, in  a< Telling  the  Bees"  and  other  personal  poems.  All 
the  members  of  the  family  are  mentioned  and  faithfully 
drawn  in  "Snow-Bound"-  — the  father  and  mother,  John 
Whittier  and  Abigail  Hussey,  Uncle  Moses  Whittier,  Aunt 
Mercy  Hussey,  the  brother,  Matthew  Franklin  Whittier, 
and  the  two  sisters  Mary  and  Elizabeth.  Besides  these, 
one  of  the  village  schoolmasters,  George  Haskell,  and  Miss 
Harriet  Livermore,  that  "half -welcome  guest,"  are  also 
included  in  the  family  circle  of  the  particular  week  when 
the  family  were  snowbound. 

Whittier' 's  early  school  life.  Whittier 's  boyhood  and  early 
surroundings  are  interesting  because  they  show  what  can 
come  out  of  many  a  country  home  where  there  are  energy 
and  perseverance  and  ambition  in  the  hearts  of  boys  and 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     195 

girls  similarly  situated.  The  school  advantages  were  mea 
ger.  Only  a  few  months  in  the  year  were  the  children 
privileged  to  attend  the  district  school.  There  were  few 
books  in  the  homes,  but  the  few  in  the  Whittier  household 
were  mostly  well-chosen  religious  books.  John  Greenleaf 
made  the  best  of  his  opportunities  for  an  education,  however, 
and  he  learned  much  that  was  valuable  to  him,  both  in  school 
and  on  the  farm.  He  showed  at  an  early  age  his  propensity 
for  poetry,  making  on  his  slate  rimes  on  the  people  he  knew 
and  the  books  he  read.  One  of  his  teachers,  Joshua  Coffin, 
later  immortalized  in  the  poem  "To  my  Old  Schoolmaster," 
one  day  read  to  the  Whittier  family  some  of  Burns's  songs. 
The  lad  was  enchanted.  So  eager  was  he  for  more  of  this 
delightful  Scotch  verse  that  the  teacher  offered  to  leave  the 
volume  with  him  for  a  few  days.  He  conned  the  hard 
Scotch  dialect  until  he  could  read  it  with  ease,  and  from 
that  time  on  he  felt  that  he,  too,  wanted  to  become  a  poet. 
In  a  later  poem  on  Burns  he  acknowledges  his  debt. 

New  light  on  home-seen  Nature  beamed, 

New  glory  over  Woman ; 
And  daily  life  and  duty  seemed 

No  longer  poor  and  common. 

His  first  published  poem.  After  school  time  the  boy  was 
put  to  work  at  the  hard  tasks  of  the  farm-,  but  he  was  not 
particularly  strong,  and  once  he  injured  himself,  so  that 
thereafter  he  was  not  expected  to  undertake  the  very 
heaviest  tasks.  He  took  up  the  trade  of  making  shoes,  and 
this  enabled  him  a  little  later  on  to  earn  part  of  his  expenses 
for  a  term  in  the  Haverhill  Academy.  He  had  been  writing 
more  or  less  ambitious  verse  ever  since  the  volume  of  Burns 
fell  into  his  hands.  His  elder  sister  Mary  thought  some  of 
his  efforts  worthy  of  being  printed,  and  so,  without  her 
brother's  knowledge,  she  sent  one  of  them,  "The  Exile's 
Departure,"  to  The  Newbury  Free  Press,  a  weekly  journal 


196  History  of  American  Literature 

of  which  the  young  William  Lloyd  Garrison,  who  afterwards 
became  a  famous  leader  of  the  abolitionists,  was  the  editor. 


WHITTIER'S  BIRTHPLACE,  HAVERHILL 

The  verses  were  accepted,  and  when  his  sister  showed  him 
his  composition  in  print  in  the  poets'  corner,  he  was  so  over 
come  with  emotion  that  for  some  minutes  he  could  not  go 
on  with  the  task  of  fence  mending  in  which  he  was  at  the 
moment  engaged.  He  admitted  in  later  years  that  no 
keener  pleasure  ever  came  into  his  life. 

Completing  his  education.  Fortunately  for  him,  the  young 
editor  of  the  Free  Press  sought  him  out,  asked  for  more 
contributions,  and  urged  his  parents  to  send  the  boy  off  to 
the  newly  established  Academy  at  Haverhill.  The  father 
objected,  for  he  did  not  think  there  was  much  in  education 
and  literature  so  far  as  making  an  honest  living  was  con 
cerned;  but  the  good  mother  joined  in  the  persuasions,  and 
the  boy  was  permitted  to  go  to  school  provided  he  would 
earn  his  way.  He  went  into  Mr.  Garrison's  home,  and  by 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     197 

means  of  money  earned  in  making  slippers  at  twenty-five 
cents  a  pair,  he  paid  the  extra  expense  for  his  first  term  in 
the  Academy.  He  spent  one  other  term  in  this  school, 
earning  the  money  this  time  partly  by  teaching  and  partly 
by  clerical  work.  And  this  was  the  extent  of  his  formal 
education.  He  never  would  have  been  the  educated  man  he 
became,  however,  had  he  not  been  a  great  reader  and  had 
he  not  kept  up  his  studies  practically  all  his  life.  Every 
one  of  the  other  prominent  New  England  writers  went  to 
college,  and  all  except  Thoreau  had  the  advantage  of  travel 
in  Europe;  but  Wliittier  never  saw  inside  a  college  during 
his  youth,  and  never  quite  managed  to  fulfill  his  desire  for 
a  trip  to  Europe.  He  lived  and  died  in  New  England,  rarely 
putting  his  foot  outside  his  native  section. 

Whittier' s  attachment  to  the  cause  of  abolition.  It  is  need 
less  to  follow  minutely  the  political  and  journalistic  career 
of  Whittier.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  early  in  life  he  attached 
himself  to  what  was  then  an  unpopular  cause, — namely, 
the  abolition  of  slavery,  —  and  he  devoted  his  best  talents  to 
this  cause  through  thick  and  thin.  He  gave  up  his  hope  for 
political  preferment  by  espousing  this  cause.  He  believed 
it  to  be  a  righteous  one,  and  he  was  doubtless  happier  in  his 
poverty  and  political  neglect  than  he  could  possibly  have 
been  as  United  States  senator,  an  office  to  which  he  might 
well  have  aspired  had  he  been  willing  to  turn  his  back  on  the 
cause  of  abolition.  Whittier  wrote  many  articles,  pub 
lished  many  anti-slavery  poems,  edited  several  journals,  and 
did  much  real  service  for  the  cause  by  his  shrewd  political 
management  and  his  untiring  devotion  to  the  mean  and 
exacting  drudgery  of  a  movement  like  the  one  in  which  he 
had  centered  his  whole  being. 

Whittier' s  final  success.  During  these  years  he  was  barely 
able  to  make  a  living;  his  wants  were  simple,  however,  and 
he  did  not  care  for  wealth  or  preferment.  He  never  married, 
and  so  he  had  but  a  small  family  to  care  for,  namely,  his 


ip8  History  of  American  Literature 

mother  and  younger  sister,  Elizabeth.  He  said  that  he 
managed  to  live  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  practically  all  of 
the  literary  channels  were  closed  to  him  on  account  of  his 
attachment  to  an  unpopular  cause.  Just  prior  to  and  after 
the  Civil  War,  however,  when  the  cause  for  which  he  had  so 
long  battled  became  popular. and  finally  triumphed,  he  came 
into  his  own,  and  the  very  best  literary  magazines  were  open 
to  him.  The  Atlantic  Monthly  under  the  editorship  of 
James  Russell  Lowell  and  James  T.  Field  was  particularly 
favorable  to  him,  and  he  published  many  of  his  best  poems 
in  this  magazine.  His  works  became  so  popular  after  the 
publication  of  "Snow-Bound"  in  1866  that  he  was  enabled 
to  live  in  comfort,  though  not  in  luxury,  during  the  remainder 
of  his  life.  He  had  given  up  his  old  homestead  near  East 
Haverhill  many  years  before,  and  had  moved  to  Amesbury, 
a  town  not  many  miles  away,  and  here  he  spent  the  latter 
half  of  his  life.  Just  about  the  time  of  his  death  (September 
7,  1892),  the  old  homestead  near  Haverhill  was  purchased 
and  refurnished  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  style  of  the 
days  of  his  youth,  and  it  is  now  open  to  visitors  from  all 
over  the  country. 

Classification  of  his  poetry.  Whittier's  poetry  may  be 
discussed  in  these  three  groups:  (i)  his  slavery  and  war 
time  poems,  or  "Voices  of  Freedom";  (2)  his  New  England 
poems,  including  his  incomparable  idylls,  his  reflective  and 
religious  poems,  his  songs  of  labor,  his  nature  lyrics,  and  his 
personal  poems;  (3)  his  narrative  verse,  including  the  ballads, 
most  of  which  are  lit  up  with  New  England  coloring. 

His  poems  on  slavery.  The  slavery  and  war-time  poems 
were  the  most  cherished  products  of  his  pen  before,  during, 
and  immediately  after  the  terrible  war  which  finally  settled 
the  question  of  slavery.  The  best  of  these  are  "Ichabod, " 
a  bold  piece  of  invective,  written  more  in  sorrow  than  in 
anger,  on  the  occasion  of  the  defection  of  Daniel  Webster 
from  the  cause  of  abolition;  "Barbara  Frietchie,"  sometimes 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     199 

ranked  as  the  best  ballad  of  the  Civil  War,  but  a  poem 
marred  by  an  unjust  allusion  to  the  great  Confederate  leader, 
"Stonewall"  Jackson;  "Massachusetts  to  Virginia,"  a 
violent  and  powerful  outburst  against  the  fugitive  slave  law ; 
and  "  Laus  Deo, "  a  magnificent  paean  of  gratitude  and  praise 
upon  the  passage  of  the  constitutional  amendment  forever 
abolishing  slavery  from  our  country. 

The  New  England  poems.  The  second  class  of  poems,  the 
New  England  group,  really  gives  Whittier  a  high  rank 
among  our  American  singers  and  justifies  his  appellation  of 
"  Poet  Laureate  of  New  England. "  The  masterpiece  among 
these  is  "Snow-Bound:  A  Winter  Idyl,"  the  almost  perfect 
picture  of  the  New  England  rural  home.  If  he  had  written 
nothing  else,  this  one  poem  would  give  him  a  just  claim  to 
literary  fame.  The  scenes  are  vividly  described,  the  por 
traits  are  wonderfully  clear-cut  and  distinct,  the  moral  tone 
is  strong  and  sincere,  and  best  of  all,  the  very  atmosphere 
of  home  seems  to  breathe  from  every  line  of  the  poem.  As 
Professor  Carpenter  justly  observes,  "He,  this  old  man  who 
had  been  an  East  Haverhill  boy,  describes  his  homestead, 
his  well-sweep,  his  brook,  his  family  circle,  his  schoolmaster, 
apparently  intent  on  naught  but  the  complete  accuracy  of 
his  narrative,  and  lo !  such  is  his  art  that  he  has  drawn  the 
one  imperishable  picture  of  that  bright  winter  life  in  that 
strange  clime."  Other  familiar  poems  similar  in  style,  but 
not  approaching  "Snow-Bound"  in  beauty  or  completeness, 
are  "Maud  Muller,"  "Mabel  Martin,"  "The  Barefoot  Boy," 
"My  Playmate,"  "In  School-Days,"  and  the  Prelude  to 
"Among  the  Hills."  The  purely  personal  and  occasional 
poems  and  the  nature  lyrics  are  too  numerous  to  be  men 
tioned  except  by  bare  examples,  such  as  "The  Poet  and  the 
Children,"  referring  to  Longfellow's  seventy-fifth  birthday 
celebration,  "The  Trailing  Arbutus,"  "The  Frost  Spirit," 
"The  Last  Walk  in  Autumn."  There  are  over  five  hundred 
clpsely  printed  double-columned  pages  in  his  collected  works, 


200  History  of  American  Literature 

and  at  least  half  of  the  volume  belongs  distinctly  in  what  I 
have  called  the  New  England  poems,  and  this  is  the  cream  of 
Whittier's  poetry.  In  fact,  Whittier,  like  Milton  in  the  days 
of  the  Commonwealth,  was  so  burdened  with  a  great  political 
cause  during  all  his  early  years  that  he  could  not  produce 
really  great  poetry.  The  poems  written  after  he  reached 
middle  age  are  by  far  the  best  products  of  his  life;  the  very 
highest  work  of  his  genius  was  given  to  the  world  after  he 
was  fifty-nine. 

Whittier's  narrative  poems.  In  narrative  verse,  Whittier's 
first  serious  effort  was  to  save  the  rich  mine  of  legend  and 
romance  which  he  saw  at  his  hand  in  the  records  of  early 
New  England  history.  His  volume  Legends  of  New  England 
in  Prose  and  Verse  (1831)  is  largely  narrative  in  character. 
Another  poem  with  an  Indian  hero,  "Mogg  Megone," 
Whittier  later  classed  as  a  stiff,  unnatural  sort  of  poetical 
performance.  The  Tent  on  the  Beach  contains  many  poems, 
almost  all  of  them  narrative  in  character.  "Among  the 
Hills"  may  also  be  classed  in  this  category.  The  number  of 
Whittier's  ballads  is  large,  including  such  favorites  as 
"Barclay  of  Ury,"  "Skipper  Ireson's  Ride,"  "Telling  the 
Bees,"  "Cobbler  Keezar's  Vision,"  "Amy  Wentworth," 
and  "King  Solomon  and  the  Ants."  It  has  been  said  that 
Whittier  is  our  truest  ballad  writer,  not  even  excepting 
Longfellow.  If  not  so  swift  in  action  nor  so  perfect  in 
imitative  tone,  Whittier's  ballads  are  truer  to  locality  and 
more  thoroughly  native  than  Longfellow's.1 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  If  Lowell  is  our  chief  critical 
essayist  and  Emerson  our  greatest  philosophical  thinker, 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  (1809-1894)  is  no  less  surely  to  be 
classed  with  Irving  as  one  of  our  two  greatest  informal 
essayists.  We  think  of  Holmes  first  as  a  humorist  and  the 

iThe  standard  Life  and  Letters  of  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  is  that  by  Samuel 
T.  Pickard,  his  kinsman  and  literary  executor,  who  has  also  written  a 
delightful  additional  volume  called  Whittier  Land.  A  good  brief  biography 
is  that  by  George  Rice  Carpenter  in  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series. 


From  an  engraving 


14 


OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES 


202  History  of  American  Literature 

author  of  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,  that  unique 
book  of  informal,  chatty  talks  or  essays.  But  he  is  also  a 
poet,  if  not  of  the  very  first  rank  among  our  American 
authors,  certainly  very  near  to  it,  for  two  or  three  of  his 
lyrics,  as  well  as  much  of  his  inimitable  humorous  poetry, 
will  bear  comparison  with  the  best  of  their  kind.  More 
over,  he  is  the  most  human,  the  most  intimately  personal, 
and  the  most  consistently  optimistic  of  all  the  New  England 
school,  and  hence  he  is  the  favorite  author  of  thousands  of 
readers  who  would  not  think  of  classing  his  poetry  or  even 
his  prose  as  the  greatest  produced  in  America.  Though  he 
was  not  autocratic  in  his  disposition,  we  may  call  him  the 
beloved  "Autocrat"  of  American  literature. 

The  span  of  his  life.  Holmes  was  born  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  August  29,  1809,  just  two  years  later  than 
Longfellow  and  Whittier,  in  ,the  same  year  with  Poe  and 
Lincoln,  and  ten  years  earlier  than  Lowell  and  Whitman. 
He  outlived  practically  all  of  his  literary  contemporaries, 
being  literally  "the  last  leaf  on  the  tree."  He  died  in  1894, 
two  years  later  than  Whittier  and  Whitman,  twelve  years 
later  than  Longfellow  and  Emerson,  and  forty-two  years 
later  than  Edgar  Allan  Poe.  It  seems  almost  unbelievable 
that  Poe,  who  was  born  in  the  same  year  as  Holmes,  had 
been  dead  eight  years  before  Holmes  began  his  famous 
"Autocrat"  papers  in'  The  Atlantic  Monthly. 

His  ancestry.  He  was  descended  from  what  he  called  the 
"Brahmin  caste"  of  New  England,  on  both  sides  of  the 
house.  His  father,  Abiel  Holmes,  the  pastor  of  the  First 
Congregational  Church  of  Cambridge,  traced  his  line  of 
descent  even  beyond  the  John  Holmes  who  came  from 
England  to  Connecticut  in  1686.  His  mother,  Sarah  Wen 
dell,  was  the  daughter  of  Oliver  Wendell  of  Boston,  for  whom 
the  poet  was  named,  and  she  was  directly  connected  with  the 
Dudleys,  Bradstreets,  Quincys,  and  other  distinguished 
New  England  families.  These  facts  are  mentioned  because 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     203 

Dr.  Holmes  himself  thoroughly  believed  in  heredity  and  had 
much  to  say  about  it  in  his  works. 

Holmes 's  education.  His  education  was  the  best  to  be 
had  in  America  in  his  day.  After  a  few  years  in  an  ele 
mentary  school,  he  went  to  Phillips  Academy,  Andover, 
and  from  there  he  entered  Harvard  College  in  1825,  the 
year  that  Longfellow  and  Hawthorne  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
College  in  Maine.  He  was  already  a  skilled  versifier, 
having  made  a  metrical  translation  of  Vergil's  Aeneid  when 
he  was  at  Andover,  and  he  was  selected  as  class  poet.  "  The 
famous  class  of  '29  "  has  become  so  partly  because  a  number 
of  distinguished  men  came  from  it,  but  largely  from  the 
fact  that  Holmes  was  its  poet  and  for  nearly  a  half  century 
read  delightful  poems  at  the  annual  class  reunions.  After 
graduation  Holmes  said  that  he  flirted  with  Blackstone 
and  Chitty  for  a  year  in  anticipation  of  becoming  a  lawyer, 
but  his  scientific  turn  of  mind  led  him  finally  to  decide  in 
favor  of  medicine.  After  studying  in  Boston  for  a  short  time, 
he  went  abroad  and  spent  two  years,  mostly  in  Paris,  in  prepa 
ration  for  his  profession.  He  visited  England,  Italy,  and 
Switzerland  before  his  return  in  1835,  and  the  next  year 
he  took  his  degree  at  Harvard  Medical  College.  He  located 
at  Boston,  the  city  which  he  loved  devotedly  and  which  he 
once  playfully  called  "the  hub  of  the  solar  system,"  and 
when  he  prepared  to  hang  out  his  professional  sign  he  charac 
teristically  proposed  to  write  beneath  his  name  the  motto, 
"Small  fevers  thankfully  received." 

Holmes  as  a  scientific  man.  Holmes  did  not  like  the  emo 
tional  strain  of  the  sick  room  and  operating  table,  but  he 
was  an  enthusiastic  investigator  and  a  careful  observer  of 
the  science  of  medicine.  He  was  gradually  building  up  a 
practice,  but  he  rather  joyfully  relinquished  it  for  the  most 
part,  when,  in  1847,  some  years  after  a  short  incumbency 
in  the  same  chair  at  Dartmouth  College,  he  was  elected 
professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Harvard.  He 


204  History  of  American  Literature 

held  the  position  thirty-five  years  as  professor  and  twelve 
more  years  as  professor  emeritus,  and  during  all  the  time  of 
his  active  duties  he  was  considered  the  most  popular  lecturer 
in  the  Harvard  Medical  College.  Although  Holmes  was  not 
a  profound  scientist,  he  was  an  ingenious  man,  and  he  per 
fected  several  mechanical  devices  of  a  scientific  character, 
among  them  the  stereoscope,  that  popular  and  entertaining 
little  binocular  device  by  which  pictured  objects  are  made 
to  stand  out  almost  as  distinctly  as  they  do  in  real  life. 

His  home  life.  In  1840  he  married  Miss  Amelia  Lee 
Jackson,  who  proved  to  be  an  ideal  mate  for  a  man  like 
Dr.  Holmes.  She  encouraged  and  helped  him  and  protected 
him  in  many  ways,  so  that  he  was  enabled  to  do  the  work 
that  he  was  born  for.  They  had  three  children,  all  of  whom 
lived  to  maturity,  and  Mrs.  Holmes  herself  lived  to  within  a 
few  years  of  the  poet's  death.  In  the  atmosphere  of  his 
companions  he  was  always  happy.  He  was  a  charming  con 
versationalist  both  at  home  and  in  public.  It  is  said  that 
he  was  the  life  of  every  social  group  in  which  he  appeared. 

Holmes's  lyrics.  Holmes's  poetical  work  falls  into  two 
classes — his  serious  lyrics  and  his  humorous  and  occasional 
pieces.  He  wrote  three  or  four  supremely  excellent  lyrics, 
and  upon  these  his  poetic  fame  chiefly  rests — "Old  Iron 
sides,"  "The  Last  Leaf,"  "The  Chambered  Nautilus,"  and 
"The  Voiceless."  -  He  composed  some  longer  serious  poems, 
such  as  "The  Rhymed  Lesson,"  otherwise  called  "Urania," 
and  "Wind  Clouds  and  Snow  Drifts,"  and  "Grandmother's 
Story  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,"  a  spirited  piece  of  nar 
rative  verse.  "The  Last  Leaf"  and  "The  Chambered 
Nautilus  "  deservedly  rank  among  the  very  finest  lyrics  in  the 
language.  No  collection  is  complete  without  them,  and  they 
are  always  found  among  the  chief  decorative  gems  of  every 
anthology  or  golden  treasury  of  American  songs.  One  of  the 
most  frequently  quoted  passages  in  all  American  poetry  is 
the  last  stanza  of  "The  Chambered  Nautilus." 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     205 

Holmes' s  humorous  and  occasional  verse.  It  is  his  humorous 
and  occasional  verse  that,  after  all,  gives  Holmes  his  dis 
tinctive  place  in  our  memory.  Here  he  is  perfectly  natural 
and  spontaneous.  Lowell  correctly  characterized  Holmes  as 

"A  Leyden  jar  always  full  charged,  from  which  flit 
Electrical  tingles  of  hit  after  hit." 

The  mere  mentioning  of  such  titles  as  "The  Deacon's 
Masterpiece,"  "The  Height  of  the  Ridiculous,"  "Content 
ment,"  "My  Aunt,"  and  the  like,  arouses  humorous  sen 
sations  of  a  delightful  kind.  Holmes  had  a  way  of  giving 
these  light  and  whimsical  humorous  pieces  a  more  universal 
and  lasting  quality  than  such  literature  usually  attains. 
His  Harvard  class  poems  are  full  of  fun  and  good  fellowship, 
and  his  local  and  occasional  poems  are  the  best  that  we  have 
of  their  kind;  but  they  will  doubtless  be  read  less  and  less 
as  time  goes  on,  for  occasional  poetry  inevitably  fades  with 
age.  Some  of  the  best  of  Holmes' s  poems  read  at  the 
annual  reunions  of  the  class  of  1829  are  "The  Boys"  (1859), 
"Bill  and  Joe"  (1868),  and  "The  Shadows"  (1880). 

Holmes  and  "The  Atlantic  Monthly."  It  was  in  1857 
that  Holmes  attained  permanent  fame.  In  this  year  The 
Atlantic  Monthly  was  founded,  and  Holmes  was  engaged 
to  write  for  it  regularly.  He  suggested  the  name  of  the  new 
magazine,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  was  his 
contributions  that  largely  gave  this  periodical  its  dominant 
character  and  its  immediate  popular  hold  on  the  public.  We 
must  give  Lowell  the  credit,  however,  for  making  it  a  con 
tingent  condition  of  his  editorship  that  Holmes  should  write 
for  the  magazine,  and  not  the  least  of  Lowell's  services 
in  furthering  American  literature  was  the  stimulus  he  gave 
Holmes,  whom,  as  the  latter  shrewdly  said,  he  woke  "from 
a  kind  of  literary  lethargy."  Lowell  later  said  that  Holmes 
was  a  "sparkling  mountain  stream  which  had  been  dammed 
up  and  was  only  awaiting  an  outlet  into  the  Atlantic." 


206  History  of  American  Literature 

The  Breakfast  Table  series.  A  book  that  is  as  surely 
marked  for  immortality  as  any  single  volume  in  our  literature 
is  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table,  or  Every  Man  His 
Own  Boswell.  It  is  a  series  of  what  William  Dean  Howells 
called  "dramatized  essays,"  with  a  fairly  thick  sprinkling 
of  poems,  serious  and  humorous,  to  add  variety  to  the 
Autocrat's  dramatic  monologues.  The  subtitle  indicates 
that  Holmes  is  really  writing  the  history  of  his  own  thoughts, 
showing  us  just  how  his  own  mind  works.  The  three 
volumes  which  make  up  the  Breakfast  Table  series,  The 
Autocrat  (1858),  The  Professor  (1859),  and  The  Poet  (1871), 
together  with  the  belated  Over  the  Teacups  (1888),  which 
really  belongs  in  the  same  group,  certainly  give  us  a  most 
satisfying  portrait  of  the  genial  Autocrat's  mind.  There 
is  in  these  books  much  real  intellectual  pabulum,  but  cer 
tainly  no  formal  philosophy.  Holmes  was  simply  giving 
us  the  best  observations  he  had  been  able  to  make  on  life. 
"Talk  about  those  subjects  you  have  had  long  in  your 
mind,"  he  said,  "and  listen  to  what  others  say  about  sub 
jects  you  have  studied  but  recently.  Knowledge  and 
timber  should  not  be  much  used  till  they  are  seasoned." 
And  again  when  he  was  asked  how  long  it  took  him  to 
write  the  Autocrat  papers,  he  replied  that  it  took  him  all 
his  life  up  to  the  time  he  wrote  them  down.  The  easy 
conversational  tone,  the  vividly  drawn  character  sketches, 
the  clear  thought,  the  scintillating  wit  and  delightfully 
good-natured  humor,  the  unbounded  optimism,  and  the 
uncompromising  hostility  toward  tyranny,  narrowness,  and 
sham,  make  the  whole  Autocrat  series  one  of  the  few  really 
original  contributions  to  nineteenth-century  literature. 
The  Autocrat  is  undoubtedly  the  best  of  the  series,  because 
it  was  the  first,  and  because  it  contains  the  cream  of  Holmes 's 
spontaneous  wit  and  humor.  The  other  three  volumes 
are  all  worth  reading,  and  some  discerning  critics  have  said 
that,  though  more  serious  and  subdued  in  tone,  they  are 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     207 

not  less  entertaining  to  the  thoughtful  reader.  The  Autocrat 
more  than  likely,  however,  has  a  hundred  readers  to  one  for 
any  of  the  other  volumes.  It  is  a  book  to  be  dipped  into, 
to  be  taken  up  at  odd  moments  when  one  wants  to  hear  a. 
genial,  witty,  healthy  personality  talk  for  his  own  and  his 
reader's  amusement  and  profit.  It  is  true  that  the  slight 
thread  of  romance  developed  between  the  Autocrat  and 
the  timid  schoolmistress  leads  one  to  read  steadily  through 
the  last  four  papers;  but  after  one  perusal,  the  book  is  to 
be  glanced  at  for  pure  pleasure  rather  than  read  straight 
through. 

Holmes 's  novels.  In  The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table, 
Holmes  had  introduced  a  more  prominent  romantic  thread 
to  his  series  of  talks.  This  led  him  to  write  his  first  novel, 
Elsie  Venner  (1861).  Two  other  novels  followed,  The  Guard 
ian  Angel  (1867)  and  A  Mortal  Antipathy  (1888).  Like 
the  Autocrat  series  these  were  first  published  serially  in 
The  Atlantic  Monthly.  Holmes  called  them  "medicated 
novels,"  because  they  are  more  or  less  concerned  with  prob 
lems  pertaining  to  the  science  of  medicine.  The  first  deals 
with  the  experiences  of  Elsie  Venner,  who  was  endowed  with 
peculiar  powers  of  serpentine  fascination  and  hypnotic 
influence  because  of  the  bite  of  a  rattlesnake  suffered  by 
her  mother  just  before  Elsie  was  born.  The  Guardian 
Angel,  said  to  be  the  most  artistic  of  the  three,  deals  with  the 
problem  of  heredity;  and  A  Mortal  Antipathy  traces  the 
cause,  growth,  and  cure  of  a  certain  man's  strong  antipathy 
to  the  feminine  sex.  As  works  of  fiction,  these  novels  do 
not  rise  above  mediocrity,  but,  like  everything  that  Holmes 
put  his  hand  to,  they  are  well  written  and  deserving  of 
at  least  a  cursory  perusal. 

His  two  biographies.  The  last  field  in  which  Holmes 
employed  his  gift  for  authorship  was  in  biography.  He 
wrote  A  Memoir  of  John  Lothrop  Motley  (1879)  and  The  Life 
of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  (1884).  These  are  excellent  and 


208  History  of  American  Literature 

painstaking  works.  It  seems  strange  that  Holmes  should 
have  been  attracted  to  such  a  profound  and  dignified  per 
sonality  as  Emerson's,  but  when  we  examine  into  Holmes 's 
real  philosophy  of  life,  we  find  that  it  is  not  altogether  unlike 
Emerson's.  At  any  rate  Holmes  produced  a  remarkably 
sympathetic  and  illuminating  study  of  the  great  thinker, 
essayist,  and  poet. 

His  trip  to  Europe.  In  1886  Holmes  took  a  pleasure  trip 
to  Europe,  which  he  presented  in  his  happy,  personal  style 
in  Our  Hundred  Days  in  Europe.  He  was  accorded  many 
honors  by  the  cities  and  universities  which  he  visited.  He 
received  honorary  degrees  from  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Edinburgh.  At  Cambridge  the  students  welcomed  him 
with  some  cleverly  adapted  new  words  to  an  old  song,  the 
title  of  which  was  "Holmes,  Sweet  Holmes";  and  with  this 
phrase  on  our  ears  we  may  close  our  study  of  this  delightful 
author.1 

Henry  David  Thoreau.  One  of  the  effects  of  the  tran 
scendental  movement  was  to  send  men  back  to  nature.  The 
most  distinguished  spirit  of  this  movement  was  Emerson, 
whose  first  book  was  entitled  Nature.  But  the  man  who 
went  farthest  into  the  real  mysteries  of  nature  was  Henry 
David  Thoreau  (1817-1862).  We  look  upon  him  now  as 
the  pioneer  and  perhaps  still  the  greatest  of  the  large  school 
of  nature  writers  which  has  sprung  up  in  recent  years.  His 
friend  William  Ellery  Channing  happily  called  him  the 
poet-naturalist.  He  was,  indeed,  in  spirit  a  poet  as  well 
as  a  naturalist,  and  he  recorded  much  of  his  early  thought 
in  verse  form;  but  in  later  years  he  expressed  himself  en 
tirely  in  prose,  and  he  is  now  chiefly  valued  as  an  original 
and  striking  prose  stylist,  who  conscientiously  and  lovingly 
portrayed  the  varied  aspects  of  nature  in  and  around  his 
native  village  of  Concord,  Massachusetts. 


iThe  .standard  biography  of  this  author  is  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes  by  J.  T.  Morse. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     209 


Thoreau's  early  life  at  Concord.     Thoreau  was  the  son  of 
John  Thoreau,  a  descendant  of  a  French  family  which  had 


HENRY   D.   THOREAU 


settled  on  the  island  of  Jersey,  and  Cynthia  Dunbar,  a  spritely 
woman  of  Scotch  descent.  He  was  born  at  Concord,  July 
12,  1817.  Both  his  parents  had  been  reared  at  Concord,  and 
the  family  seems  to  have  taken  deep  root  in  this  consecrated 


210  History  of  American  Literature 

soil.  Henry  could  not  bear  to  think  of  living  in  any  other 
place.  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  Channing,  the  Alcotts,  and 
other  notable  literary  persons  lived  here,  but  none  of  them 
was  so  thoroughly  attached  to  the  soil,  so  much  a  natural 
outgrowth  of  it  as  was  Thoreau,  and  none  has  so  faithfully 
and  lovingly  preserved  the  external  features  and  the  spiritual 
atmosphere  of  the  region  round  about.  He  seemed  to  be 
a  part  of  nature  in  this  particular  spot.  For  a  few  years 
during  his  early  childhood  his  parents  went  to  seek  their 
fortune  in  other  places  near  by,  but  they  came  back  to 
Concord  in  time  for  Henry  to  get  his  common-school  edu 
cation  there.  Then  he  was  sent  to  Harvard  College,  and 
by  the  combined  financial  help  of  the  members  of  his  family 
he  was  enabled  to  graduate  in  1837.  So  little  did  he  value 
the  diploma  and  so  much  was  economy  necessary  that  he 
refused  to  pay  the  five-dollar  fee  necessary  to  secure  the 
formal  certificate  of  his  graduation.  He  engaged  in  teach 
ing  for  a  few  years,  finding  a  place  in  his  native  town  to 
test  his  ability  in  this  capacity;  but  his  refusal  to  continue 
the  practice  of  administering  corporal  punishment  led  to 
his  withdrawal  from  the  business  of  keeping  school.  He 
then  took  up  his  father's  business  of  pencil-making,  and 
by  working  industriously  he  soon  mastered  the  secrets  of 
this  peculiar  occupation.  With  that  eccentricity  for  which 
he  had  already  become  noticeable,  he  announced  that  he 
would  make  no  more  pencils,  since  he  did  not  care  to  do 
again  what  he  had  once  learned  to  do  well.  He  decided 
that  the  best  thing  a  man  could  do  was  to  learn  to  live 
simply  and  economically,  avoiding  much  of  the  unnecessary 
frippery  and  luxury  of  modern  life.  He  thought  that  most 
people  spent  entirely  too  much  time  making  a  living  arid 
entirely  too  little  in  really  living.  "A  man  is  rich,"  he 
said,  "in  proportion  to  the  number  of  things  he  can  afford 
to  let  alone."  If  any  friend  proposed  that  Thoreau  should 
embark  in  some  enterprise,  he  was  ready  to  reply  that  he 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     211 

had  already  embarked  in  a  permanent  business  venture, 
that  of  living  his  own  life  in  his  own  way. 

His  simple  method  of  life.  Of  course  he  had  to  work  part 
of  the  time  to  earn  the  actual  means  of  subsistence,  but  he 
accepted  Carlyle's  doctrine  that  the  chief  way  to  satisfy 
one's  desires  was  to  "reduce  the  denominator  of  life's  frac 
tion."  He  estimated  that  he  could  earn  enough  in  one 
day's  labor  to  subsist  for  a  week,  and  he  proportioned  his 
own  time  in  just  about  this  ratio  between  manual  labor  and 
quiet  observation,  meditation,  and  loitering  in  the  presence 
of  wild  nature.  He  was  by  no  means  idle  during  these 
experiences  in  the  fields  and  forests  and  on  the  lakes  and 
streams,  for  he  was  continually  studying  nature  and  record 
ing  his  own  thoughts  and  impressions.  His  manual  labor 
was  of  varied  kinds — gardening,  carpentry,  fence-building, 
but  primarily  surveying.  He  once  jocularly  quoted  Cow- 
per's  poem  on  Alexander  Selkirk, 

"I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey," 

and  he  summarized  his  occupations  by  saying  that  his  steadi 
est  employment  was  to  keep  himself  in  the  top  of  condition 
so  as  to  be  ready  for  anything  that  might  turn  up  on  earth 
or  in  heaven.  He  began  to  lecture  with  more  or  less  regu 
larity  after  the  lyceums  came  into  vogue,  but  he  was  never 
a  great  favorite  in  this  field. 

Thoreau's  personality.  Thoreau  never  married.  He  was 
too  much  centered  in  the  development  of  his  own  inner  life, 
too  sanely  self-mastering,  too  passionless  to  become  enmeshed 
in  the  ties  of  sentiment  or  domestic  life,  and  it  is  perhaps 
well  that  he  did  not  marry.  It  is  certainly  unjust  to  him, 
however,  to  say  that  he  was  cold  and  indifferent  in  his 
domestic  relations.  He  was  devoted  to  his  brother  and 
sisters  and  to  his  parents,  he  was  exceedingly  fond  of  chil 
dren,  and  he  was  kind  and  helpful  to  the  oppressed  who 
came  under  his  notice.  But  he  was  not  personally  magnetic, 


212  History  of  American  Literature 

he  made  few  intimate  friends,  and  he  did  not  possess  a  uni 
versal  sympathy  like  that  of  Walt  Whitman,  for  example. 
He  was  rather  a  man  who  sought  out  the  secrets  of  his  own 
nature  and  mind  and  made  a  strict  record  of  the  findings, 
than  one  who  opened  his  heart  to  the  world  around  him. 
Some  one  suggested  that  he  must  love  man  since  he  loved 
all  animals,  but  it  is  perhaps  true  that  Thoreau  preferred 
the  companionship  of  the  furred  and  feathered  animals. 
He  once  wittily  remarked  that  he  would  rather  listen  to  the 
chic-a-dee-dees  than  the  D.  D's.  Emerson  very  correctly 
called  him  a  "Bachelor  of  Nature." 

Thoreau  and  Emerson.  For  several  years  Thoreau  was  an 
inmate  of  Emerson's  home  at  Concord.  He  was  a  sort  of 
adopted  elder  brother  and  helped  to  earn  his  keep  by 
working  around  the  house  and  in  the  garden,  and  by  tutor 
ing  in  a  sort  of  way,  Emerson's  children.  He  studied  nature 
and  oriental  literature,  talked  philosophy  with  Emerson, 
opening  the  elder  writer's  eyes  to  many  beauties  and  secrets 
of  nature,  and  he  developed  normally  and  naturally.  The 
period  of  his  residence  with  Emerson  was  an  important  one 
in  Thoreau 's  life,  for  he  was  beginning  to  find  himself  and  to 
follow  implicitly  the  promptings  of  his  own  instincts. 

Thoreau's  residence  in  the  woods  near  Walden  Pond.  It 
was  about  this  time  that  he  decided  to  go  to  the  woods  and 
live  alone  in  order  to  let  his  genius  ripen.  Emerson  owned 
a  piece  of  land  on  Walden  Pond  near  Concord,  and  here 
Thoreau  "squatted."  He  tells  us  in  his  book  Walden,  or 
Life  in  the  Woods  how  he  borrowed  Ellery  Channing's  axe, 
cut  down  the  trees  for  the  frame  of  his  house,  built  his  hut 
at  a  remarkably  low  expense,  and  set  up  housekeeping  in 
the  woods.  He  planted  beans  and  potatoes,  intending  to 
live  as  far  as  possible  on  his  own  products  and  the  fish  he 
could  catch  in  the  ponds  and  streams.  Here  he  became 
familiar  with  the  beasts  and  birds  of  the  forest  and  even 
the  fishes  of  the  lake.  He  recorded  every  item  which  his 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group    213 

keen  eye  and  clear  mind  observed.  He  set  down  day  by  day 
and  season  by  season  every  detail  about  the  plants  and 
animals  and  birds  and  fishes.  He  was  developing  his  soul  by 
studying  wild  life  and  recording  his  own  minutest  thoughts 
and  emotions.  He  did  not  go  out  to  prove  that  a  man  could 
live  the  simple  life  entirely  separated  from  his  fellows;  he  did 
not  go  out  to  prove  that  a  hermit's  life  was  better  than  ordi 
nary  social  life ;  he  did  not  even  want  people  to  imitate  his 
way  of  living.  What  he  did  want  to  do  was  to  give  his  soul 
room  to  expand,  to  find  out  what  he  could  best  do  with  his 
endowment  of  mind  and  heart  and  eye,  to  study  wild  life 
closely  and  on  equal  and  friendly  terms,  and  to  make  a  full 
and  frank  personal  record  of  his  observations  and  inner 
experiences.  In  all  this  he  succeeded,  and  his  success  has 
given  the  public  a  new  view  of  nature,  a  new  inspiration 
for  simple,  sincere  living. 

Thoreau's  first  published  volume.  Thoreau  went  to  Walden 
Pond  in  1845  and  returned  to  his  father's  home  in  Concord 
in  1847,  but  the  volume  recording  his  experiences  there  did 
not  appear  until  1854.  In  the  meantime  he  had  completed 
and  published  in  1849  m's  first  volume,  an  account  of  a  tour 
made  in  a  canoe  by  Thoreau  and  his  brother  John  some  ten 
years  before,  and  called  A  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merri- 
mack  Rivers.  It  has  a  thin  thread  of  narrative,  but  it  is 
made  up  for  the  most  part  of  selections  from  Thoreau's 
thoughts,  poems,  and  moral  observations  during  the  years 
up  to  its  publication.  It  is  a  loose,  uneven  composition,  and 
has  the  peculiar  quality  of  works  of  genius:  it  is  as  dry  to 
some  readers  as  it  is  fascinating  to  others.  Of  the  thousand 
copies  printed,  only  about  three  hundred  were  disposed  of 
by  gift  or  sale  during  several  years  and  the  publisher  finally 
sent  the  remainder  of  the  edition  to  Thoreau's  home.  He 
packed  the  books  away  and  jocularly  remarked  that  he  had  a 
library  of  nine  hundred  volumes,  seven  hundred  of  which 
he  had  written  himself. 


214  History  of  American  Literature 

"Walden,  or  Life  in  the  Woods."  But  he  kept  working 
along  quietly  in  his  own  vein,  accumulating  vast  stores  of 
notes  in  his  journals,  and  presently  Walden,  or  Life  in  the 
Woods,  largely  made  up  of  material  selected  from  these 
journals,  was  ready  for  publication.  This  volume,  from  the 
peculiar  experiment  which  it  recorded,  was  somewhat  more 
successful,  but  the  public  was  not  yet  ready  for  this  new 
kind  of  nature  interpretation,  interspersed  with  the  senten 
tious  wisdom  and  moral  meditations  of  the  poet-naturalist. 

Thoreau's  other  works.  Thoreau  did  his  best  thinking 
during  his  long  daily  walks.  His  notes  of  his  walks  are 
delightful  records,  and  some  of  his  best  books,  published 
since  his  death,  are  the  results  of  his  walking  tours,  as  for 
example,  The  Maine  Woods  and  Cape  Cod,  edited  by  Emer 
son,  and  four  other  books  edited  by  H.  G.  O.  Blake  under  the 
title  of  the  four  seasons,  Spring,  Summer,  Autumn,  and 
Winter.  These  posthumous  volumes  consisted  of  previously 
published  papers  and  extracts  from  the  thirty  or  more  manu 
script  volumes  of  Thoreau's  journals.  Finally  in  1896  these 
notebooks  were  published  in  fourteen  volumes  under  the 
title  of  Thoreau's  Journals,  so  that  now  we  have  a  perfect 
quarry  of  Thoreau  material  to  dig  into  at  will. 

His  death:  the  Thoreau  cairn.  It  is  a  pity  that  Thoreau 
did  not  live  to  prepare  his  own  books  for  publication,  for  he 
was  a  minute  reviser  and  a  careful  workman  on  his  literary 
style  in  the  proof  sheets.  Perhaps  we  may  console  our 
selves  with  the  thought  that  the  unpruned  records  as  we 
have  them  give  us  after  all  a  true  picture  of  the  man  as  he 
was.  About  1860  he  exposed  himself  too  freely  in  his  long 
winter  walks,  and  contracted  consumption.  He  went  to 
Minnesota  for  a  time  to  see  if  the  dry  climate  might  not  help 
him,  but  he  returned  not  greatly  benefited,  and  became  a 
helpless  but  patient  invalid.  He  died  May  6,  1862,  and  was 
buried  in  the  Sleepy  Hollow  Cemetery  of  his  native  town. 
Close  by  the  spot  where  Thoreau's  cabin  stood  near  Walden 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group    215 

Pond,  a  large  cairn  of  loose  stones  has  been  gradually  raised 
to  his  memory  by  the  hundreds  of  pilgrims  who  come  annu 
ally  to  this  literary  shrine  in  Thoreau's  native  haunts.1 

James  Russell  Lowell.  James  Russell  Lowell  (1819-1891) 
is  usually  designated  as  our  "representative  man  of  letters." 
His  versatility  and  originality,  his  successful  productions 
not  in  one  but  in  many  types  of  literature,  and  his  character 
istic  literary  attitude  even  in  his  moral  and  political  thought 
and  in  his  diplomatic  and  other  public  services,  justly  entitle 
him  to  this  designation.  He  possessed  a  brilliant  mind  and 
was  a  scholar  by  instinct  and  training,  and  yet  we  are 
constantly  wondering  if  he  always  gave  the  world  the  very 
best  of  which  he  was  capable.  He  worked  rapidly  and 
with  intense  fervor,  and  depended  largely  on  the  "first  fine, 
careless  rapture"  for  his  best  efforts.  If  he  had  been  just  a 
trifle  more  patient,  painstaking,  and  self-contained,  he  might 
have  produced  even  greater  masterpieces  than  he  has  done. 

Lowell's  ancestry.  Lowell  was  born  February  22,  1819, 
at  "Elmwood, "  another  famous  old  Cambridge  house  not 
far  from  Longfellow's  home,  "Craigie  House."  The  old 
Puritan  family  of  Lowells  belonged  to  what  Holmes  called 
"the  Brahmins  of  New  England."  One  member  of  this 
family  founded  the  city  of  Lowell  and  was  among  the  first  to 
introduce  the  manufacture  of  cotton  into  this  country; 
another  endowed  "Lowell  Institute"  in  Boston;  and  his  own 
father,  Reverend  Charles  Lowell,  was  a  noted  pastor  of  a 
Congregational  church  in  Boston.  It  was  from  his  mother, 
Harriet  Spence,  however,  that  Lowell  inherited  his  poetic 
instincts.  She  believed  herself  to  be  descended  from  the 
famous  old  Scotch  sea  captain,  Sir  Patrick  Spence,  of  ballad 
fame. 

Early  influences.  In  his  youth  Lowell  was  surrounded 
by  the  best  cultural  influences,  and  he  read  deeply  in  his 

iThe  best  life  of  this  author  is  Thoreau,  the  Poet-Naturalist,  by  W.  E. 
Channing,  revised  by  F.  B.  Sanborn.  A  good  short  biography  is  that  by 
Henry  S.  Salt  in  the  Great  Writers  Series. 


2i6  History  of  American  Literature 

father's  excellent  library.  He  was  an  imaginative  child, 
often  confessing  to  have  seen  visions  in  his  youth,  and  to 
have  been  constantly  accompanied  by  the  medieval  char 
acters  with  whom  he  had  become  acquainted  by  reading 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  and  other  imaginative  poems  and 
romances.  Moreover,  he  was  deeply  religious.  Mr.  Ferris 
Greenslet,  his  latest  biographer,  says  that  the  two  significant 
influences  of  the  poet's  early  life  were  "his  love  for  the 
outdoor  world  at  Elm  wood,  and  his  equally  strong  love  for 
the  indoor  world  of  literature."  Mr.  Greenslet  also  makes 
much  of  the  mystical  element  in  Lowell's  nature. 

Educated  at  Harvard.  It  was  but  natural  for  Lowell  to  go 
to  Harvard  when  he  was  ready  to  enter  college,  for  his 
father  had  graduated  there  before  him,  and  all  his  native 
and  local  inclinations  led  him  to  that  institution.  He  did 
not  make  a  good  record,  for  he  read  everything,  he  says,  but 
those  books  which  would  have  advanced  his  academic  stand 
ing.  He  was  one  of  the  cleverest  wits  in  his  class,  however, 
and  like  Emerson  and  Holmes,  he  was  chosen  class  poet. 
Just  two  weeks  before  he  was  graduated,  the  authorities  of 
the  college  rusticated  him  as  a  punishment  for  his  continued 
neglect  of  his  academic  duties.  He  spent  two  rather  dreary 
weeks  at  Concord,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  met 
Emerson  and  Thoreau  here  and  had  time  to  compose  and 
polish  his  class  poem,  he  confessed  to  a  lifelong  feeling  of 
dislike  for  the  famous  old  village.  He  was  allowed  to  return 
to  Harvard  in  time  for  graduation,  but  not  in  time  to  read 
his  class  poem. 

From  law  to  literature.  Like  several  others  of  our  literary 
men,  Lowell  first  turned  to  the  law  for  a  livelihood.  He 
took  the  Bachelor  of  Laws  degree  at  Harvard  and  went 
so  far  as  to  enter  a  law  office  to  practice.  About  this  time 
(1840)  he  met  and  became  engaged  to  Maria  White,  a  beauti 
ful  and  accomplished  young  woman,  and  her  influence  on 
him  finally  determined  his  life  career.  She  was  a  great 


JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL 


2i8  History  of  American  Literature 

lover  of  poetry  and  a  strong  adherent  of  the  cause  of  aboli 
tion.  Lowell  began  now  to  write  stirring  articles  for  the 
abolition  journals  and  attractive  poems  for  The  Southern 
Literary  Messenger  and  other  literary  magazines.  His  first 
volume,  A  Year's  Life,  came  out  in  1841,  the  most  notable 
poems  being  those  addressed  to  his  prospective  wife. 

Growth  of  his  fame:  "The  Present  Crisis."  Encouraged 
by  the  reception  of  his  literary  efforts,  Lowell  decided  to 
abandon  the  law  and  devote  himself  to  literature.  He 
attempted  to  form  a  literary  journal,  The  Pioneer,  but  this 
venture  failed  after  a  brief  career.  At  the  end  of  1843  a 
collected  edition  of  his  poems  appeared  and  was  received 
with  great  favor  by  the  public.  In  1844,  with  the  success 
of  this  volume  and  the  additional  income  from  his  contribu 
tions  to  the  magazines  and  from  his  popular  lectures,  Lowell 
was  enabled  to  marry.  He  had  secured  a  position,  too,  as 
editorial  writer  for  The  Pennsylvania  Freeman,  a  journal  at 
one  time  edited  by  Whit  tier.  His  fame  grew,  and  he  gradu 
ally  became  one  of  the  leading  literary  men  of  his  time.  He 
was  continually  flashing  forth  with  some  fiery  lyric  on  topics 
of  the  day,  or  quietly  publishing  some  exquisite  personal  or 
nature  poem.  For  example,  in  1844,  "during  the  heated 
discussion  of  the  slavery  question  in  connection  with  the 
admission  of  Texas  to  the  Union,  he  produced  "  The  Present 
Crisis,"  a  stirring  ode  written  in  the  long  trochaic  meter  of 
Tennyson's  "Locksley  Hall."  It  caught  the  public  ear 
and  was  quoted  many  times  in  public  addresses  during  the 
period  of  discussion  preceding  the  Civil  War.  In  spite  of  its 
occasional  character,  it  contains  some  fine  thoughts  and 
notable  passages,  such  as, 

Once  to  every  man  and  nation  comes  the  moment  to  decide, 
In  the  strife  of  Truth  with  Falsehood,  for  the  good  or  evil  side; 

Truth  forever  on  the  scaffold,  Wrong  forever  on  the  throne, — 
Yet  that  scaffold  sways  the  future,  and,  behind  the  dim  unknown, 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above  his  own. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     219 

New  occasions  teach  new  duties;  Time  makes  ancient  Good  uncouth; 
They  must  upward  still,  and  onward,  who  would  keep  abreast  of  Truth. 

This  betrays  the  moralist  and  the  Puritan  in  Lowell's  nature, 
but  in  spite  of  its  preaching  tone  and  the  local  or  circum 
scribed  theme,  the  noble  sincerity  and  fiery  passion  of  the 
poem  lift  it  clearly  into  the  realm  of  art. 

Lowell's  annus  mirabilis:  the  " Biglow  Papers."  The 
year  1848  has  been  called  Lowell's  annus  mirabilis,  or  year 
of  wonders.  Besides  many  essays  and  fugitive  poems,  he 
published  during  this  year  a  new  volume  of  poems,  chiefly 
lyrical,  the  famous  Biglow  Papers,  First  Series;  the  clever 
satire,  "A  Fable  for  Critics";  and  chief  of  all,  "The  Vision 
of  Sir  Launfal."  The  Biglow  Papers  were  cast  in  the  homely 
New  England  dialect,  and  for  shrewdness,  Yankee  common- 
sense,  sparkling  wit,  and  keen  political  satire,  we  have 
nothing  in  our  literature  to  compare  with  the  combined 
First  Series  (1848),  dealing  with  the  Mexican  War,  and  the 
Second  Series  (1866),  dealing  with  the  Civil  War.  These 
pieces,  begun  in  a  spirit  of  humor  as  a  light  newspaper 
contribution  to  the  political  discussion  of  the  time,  brought 
Lowell  national  and  even  international  fame,  and  placed 
him  securely  in  the  first  rank  of  American  humorists.  They 
are  composed  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  and  pur 
port  to  be  mainly  poetical  productions  of  Hosea  Biglow 
of  Jaalam,  with  introductory  letters  mainly  by  Parson 
Homer  Wilbur.  The  poems  were  copied  and  quoted  widely, 
and  some  of  them,  notably  "What  Mr.  Robinson  Thinks," 
became  almost  as  popular  as  a  byword  during  the  period 
immediately  following  their  appearance.  Naturally  dialect 
poems  of  this  character,  being  chiefly  satirical  and  largely 
made  up  of  local  allusions  and  topical  material,  cannot  be 
expected  to  retain  popular  favor  for  many  decades;  but  so 
sprightly  is  the  humor,  so  original  and  fresh  is  the  concep 
tion  of  both  character  and  incident,  and  so  permanent  is  the 
basic  moral  truth  of  the  Biglow  Papers  that  it  will  always 


220  History  of  American  Literature 

retain  its  interest  for  students  of  our  native  language  and 
literature.  And  at  least  one  poem,  "The  Courtin',''  pro 
duced  not  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Biglow  Papers  but 
under  the  same  impulse,  is  destined,  because  of  its  more 
human  and  universal  appeal,  to  retain  its  place  much  longer 
in  popular  esteem  as  a  standard  humorous  ballad. 

"A  Fable  for  Critics"  Lowell's  critical  abilities  are  well 
displayed  in  "A  Fable  for  Critics,"  a  humorous  jeu  d 'esprit 
written,  as  Lowell  says,  "at  full  gallop,"  from  time  to  time 
in  1847  and  1849.  In  spite  of  the  playful  badinage  and 
the  bantering  tone  of  the  satire,  the  criticism  of  the  various 
authors  was  meant  to  be  serious.  The  piece  is  composed 
in  a  curious  four-stressed  anapestic  rhythm  with  many 
ludicrous  rimes  to  fit  this  unusual  meter.  So  well  did 
Lowell  strike  off  the  characteristics  of  Emerson,  Bryant, 
Whittier,  Hawthorne,  Cooper,  Poe,  Longfellow,  Irving, 
Holmes,  and  even  Lowell  himself,  that  lines  from  the  poem 
are  still  frequently  and  approvingly  quoted  by  modern 
critics.  For  example, 

There  is  Bryant,  as  quiet,  as  cool,  and  as  dignified, 
As  a  smooth,  silent  iceberg,  that  never  is  ignified. 

There  comes  Pos,  with  his  raven,  like  Barnaby  Rudge, 
Three  fifths  of  him  genius  and  two  fifths  sheer  fudge. 

There  is  Lowell,  who 's  striving  Parnassus  to  climb 
With  a  whole  bale  of  isms  tied  together  with  rhyme. 

As  a  whole,  "A  Fable  for  Critics"  is  fantastically  conceived 
and  loosely  thrown  together,  and  it  is  by  no  means  a  work 
of  art.  Still  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  it  is  the  finest 
example  of  satiric  criticism  in  our  literature.  It  may  be 
favorably  compared  with  Byron's  "English  Bards  and 
Scotch  Reviewers,"  though  it  certainly  is  not  written  in 
the  revengeful  and  caustic  mood  of  its  English  predecessor. 
"  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal."  But  by  far  the  most  won 
derful  product  of  this  wonderful  year  of  Lowell's  is  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     221 

far-famed  "Vision  of  Sir  Launfal."  This  narrative  poem  in 
ode  form  is  usually  conceded  to  be  the  masterpiece  of  Lowell's 
poetic  genius.  It  belongs  to  that  large  number  of  poems 
dealing  with  the  Arthurian  legend  of  the  search  for  the  Holy 
Grail,  the  marvelously  preserved  cup  from  which  Jesus  drank 
and  served  his  disciples  at  the  last  supper  before  He  was 
betrayed.  Lowell  said  that  the  story  was  his  own  inven 
tion,  and  the  principal  idea  underlying  the  poem, —  namely, 
that  only  through  unselfish  service  to  the  needy  can  one  hope 
to  find  the  Holy  Grail,  that  is,  realize  the  ideal  of  Christ, — 
is  certainly  his  own,  for  he  had  previously  used  the  theme 
in  several  other  pieces.  Every  one  should  study  the 
poem  closely  for  himself,  for  in  no  other  way  can  one  realize 
the  mystical  and  romantic  beauty  of  the  conception.  The 
young  reader  should  remember  that  it  is  a  vision  and  not  a 
real  adventure  upon  which  Sir  Launfal  goes.  The  two 
preludes  are  long,  and  the  parts  are  not  well  coordinated, 
so  that  one  is  likely  to  miss  the  point  of  the  poem  as  a 
whole.  There  are  some  flat  lines  and  some  strained  and 
unnatural  images,  too,  and  the  work  as  a  whole  might 
have  been  greatly  improved  by  a  careful  revision.  But 
these  faults  may  be  pardoned  in  the  face  of  the  many  ex 
cellences  that  the  poem  possesses.  The  descriptive  passages 
on  spring  and  winter  in  the  contrasted  preludes  are  well 
worth  memorizing,  as  is  also  the  moral  attached  to  the 
story : 

The  Holy  Supper  is  kept,  indeed, 
In  whatso  we  share  with  another's  need;  — 
Not  that  which  we  give,  but  what  we  share,  — 
For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare. 

Lowell's  odes.  Among  the  later  poems  by  Lowell  the 
"Commemoration  Ode,"  read  in  1865  at  the  Harvard  ser 
vices  in  commemoration  of  her  sons  who  fell  in  the  Civil 
War,  is  the  most  notable.  The  tribute  to  Lincoln,  beginning 
"And  such  was  he,  our  Martyr  Chief,"  and  the  magnificent 


222  History  of  American  Literature 

patriotic  conclusion,  beginning  "  O  Beautiful !  my  Country, " 
have  been  singled  out  by  discerning  critics  as  the  high-water 
mark  not  only  of  Lowell's  poetry,  but  of  America's.  "  Under 
the  Willows"  (1868),  "The  Cathedral"  (1869),  "Agassiz" 
(1876),  and  "Under  the  Old  Elm"  (1875)  are  also  worthy  of 
special  mention  among  Lowell's  longer  and  more  serious 
poems.  The  last  named  poem  celebrates  the  Old  Elm  under 
which  Washington  took  command  of  the  Revolutionary 
Army,  and  contains  a  notable  tribute  to  the  great  soldier 
and  statesman. 

Lowell  as  teacher  and  talker.  In  1856  Lowell,  who  had 
already  for  some  years  been  lecturing  on  literature  at 
Lowell  Institute  in  Boston,  succeeded  Longfellow  in  the 
Smith  Professorship  of  Spanish  and  Italian  at  Harvard. 
He  held  this  position  for  seventeen  years  and  earned  the 
distinction  of  being  a  most  charming  and  inspiring  lecturer. 
Moreover,  Lowell  was  greatly  in  demand  as  a  public  orator 
both  in  England  and  in  America,  and  he  never  disappointed 
his  audiences.  He  had  a  sort  of  conversational  style  of 
teaching,  which  his  pupils  said  was  delightful.  In  fact, 
Lowell  was  a  remarkable  conversationalist  and  letter- 
writer  all  his  life;  it,  is  said  that  he  was  the  finest  talker 
not  only  in  America  but  in  England  during  his  time,  and  his 
two  volumes  of  Letters  edited  by  his  friend  Charles  Eliot 
Norton  are  charming  in  every  respect.  It  was  in  this  year 
that  Lowell — his  first  wife  having  been  dead  several  years  — 
married  Miss  Frances  Dunlap,  a  beautiful  young  woman  of 
excellent  family  who  was  at  this  time  the  governess  of  his 
daughter.  It  was  in  this  year,  too,  that  The  Atlantic 
Monthly  was  founded  with  Lowell  as  its  first  editor.  With 
the  assistance  of  the  principal  literary  men  of  New  England, 
Lowell  made  of  this  journal  what  it  has  since  continued  to 
be — our  chief  literary  magazine.  Later  (1863)  be  became 
editorially  connected  with  The  North  American  Review. 

Lowell's  essays  and  addresses.     During  these  years  Lowell's 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group     223 


ELMWOOD,  LOWELL'S  HOME  AT  CAMBRIDGE 

fame  as  an  essayist  and  critic  was  continually  growing.  His 
collected  volumes  of  prose  include  Fireside  Travels  (1864), 
Among  My  Books,  First  and  Second  Series  (1870,  1876), 
My  Study  Windows  (1871),  Democracy  and  Other  Addresses 


224  History  of  American  Literature 

(1886),  and  Latest  Literary  Essays  and  Addresses  (1892). 
These  works  unquestionably  place  Lowell  first  among  our 
critical  essayists.  With  his  keen  insight,  fine  literary  judg 
ment  and  taste,  exuberant  humor,  and  scintillating  wit,  he 
makes  subjects  ordinarily  dry  and  uninteresting  exceedingly 
entertaining  and  enlightening.  He  has  something  fresh 
and  new  to  say  even  when  he  treats  familiar  subjects  like 
Shakespeare,  Spenser,  Chaucer,  Dryden.  The  best  of  his 
outdoor  essays  are  "My  Garden  Acquaintance"  and  "A 
Good  Word  for  Winter";  and  his  address  on  "Democracy," 
delivered  at  Birmingham,  England,  in  1884,  is  a  notable 
analysis  of  our  national  ideals.  All  Lowell's  essays,  however, 
are  full  of  subtleties,  minute  literary  allusions,  and  fanciful 
and  humorous  touches,  and  hence  are  rather  difficult  reading 
for  young  students. 

His  last  years.  In  1877  Lowell  was  appointed  foreign 
minister  at  Madrid,  and  in  1880  he  was  promoted  to  be 
ambassador  to  England,  the  most  distinguished  post  in  our 
foreign  diplomatic  service.  It  is  said  that  he  was  up  to  this 
time  the  mos,t  popular  ambassador  America  had  sent  to  the 
Court  of  Saint  James.  He  was  called  on  for  all  sorts  of 
addresses,  and  many  honors  were  heaped  upon  him.  He 
returned  to  America  in  1885,  and  though  his  life  was  now 
saddened  by  the  loss  of  his  second  wife,  he  continued  to 
write  until  his  death  in  1891.  He  was  buried  near  Long 
fellow  in  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery,  Cambridge,  almost 
within  sight  of  the  old  family  home  in  which  he  was  born.1 

THE    NEW    ENGLAND    HISTORIANS    AND    ESSAYISTS 

The  chief  historians.  The  nineteenth  century  New  Eng 
land  historians  who  have  achieved  literary  as  well  as  scholarly 


!The  standard  life  cf  Lowell  is  that  by  Horace  E.  Scudder  in  two 
volumes;  Ferris  Greenslet's  life  is  a  delightful  shorter  study;  and  The 
Letters  of  James  Russell  Lowell,  edited  by  Charles  E.  Norton  in  two  vol 
umes,  gives  a  still  more  intimate  knowledge  of  the  poet's  literary  and 
personal  connections. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group    225 

success  in  their  several  fields  are  George  Ticknor,  William  H. 
Prescott,  John  Lothrop  Motley,  George  Bancroft,  Francis 
Parkman,  and  John  Fiske. 

George  Ticknor.  George  Ticknor  (1791-1871),  born  at 
Boston  and  educated  at  Dartmouth,  was  one  of  the  first 
of  the  American  scholars  to  seek  training  abroad.  He 
studied  in  Europe  for  four  years,  principally  at  Gottingen, 
Germany.  He  returned  to  America  in  1815  to  become 
Smith  professor  of  modern  languages  at  Harvard,  a  position 
which  he  held  until  1834,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Henry 
W.  Longfellow.  Ticknor  deserves  to  be  remembered  not 
only  as  a  productive  historian  and  critical  writer,  but  also  as 
one  of  our  first  scholars  to  adopt  advanced  European  methods 
of  research.  He  did  not  begin  to  publish  until  several 
years  after  his  retirement  from  active  teaching,  but  the 
long  period  of  preparation  and  the  patient  method  of  his 
composition  are  justified  in  the  permanent  character  of 
his  works.  His  History  of  Spanish  Literature  (1849)  is  one 
of  the  first  great  landmarks  in  American  scholarly  achieve 
ment.  Besides  this  standard  literary  history,  his  Life  of 
William  Hickling  Prescott  (1864)  and  his  own  Life,  Letters, 
and  Journals  (1876)  are  two  productions  that  are  of  prime 
interest  to  the  student  of  this  period  of  American  literature 
and  history. 

William  H.  Prescott.  William  Hickling  Prescott  (1796- 
1859)  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  of  the  New  England 
historians.  He  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  one  of  his  eyes 
through  an  accident,  and  the  sight  of  his  other  eye  was 
almost  entirely  lost  through  sympathetic  infection;  but  his 
determination  to  make  a  historian  of  himself  was  not  to  be 
broken  by  this  handicap.  He  employed  readers  and  con 
tinued  to  collect  notes  in  his  own  particular  field  of  research. 
His  first  work  was  in  Spanish  history,  The  Reign  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  (1837).  He  followed  up  this  successful  venture 
by  his  delightful  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico  (1844) 


226  History  of  American  Literature 

and  The  Conquest  of  Peru  (1847),  two  books  that  read  like 
romance,  and  finally  by  an  incomplete  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Philip  the  Second  (1855).  The  truth  is  that  there  is  a 
good  deal  of  highly  romantic  material  in  these  histories, 
particularly  in  The  Conquest  of  Mexico  and  The  Conquest  of 
Peru,  for  Prescott  depended  implicitly  on  the  exaggerated 
and  laudatory  accounts  of  the  Spanish  conquerors  of  these 
countries;  and  besides,  he  was  himself  an  adherent  of  the 
romantic  rather  than  the  strictly  scientific  school  of  histo 
rians.  Hence,  while  his  books  are  still  delightful  reading, 
Prescott's  history  is  subject  to  correction  by  modern  research. 
His  imagination,  his  wonderfully  vivid  descriptions,  and  his 
attractive  literary  style  are  not  to  be  discounted,  however, 
and  these  characteristics  together  with  the  inherently  inter 
esting  nature  of  his  material  have  kept  his  books  alive. 

John  Lothrop  Motley  A  more  dependable  recorder  of 
facts  and  a  profounder  interpreter  of  the  underlying  phi 
losophy  of  history  was  John  Lothrop  Motley  (1814-1877). 
After  studying  in  Gottingen,  Germany,  he  returned  to 
America  to  devote  himself  to  writing  history.  His  early 
efforts  met  with  little  encouragement,  but  he  persisted  until 
he  won  a  well-deserved  fame.  He  devoted  ten  full  years 
of  his  life,  partly  in  America  and  partly  in  Holland,  to  the 
study  of  Dutch  history  before  he  published  his  great  work 
called  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic  (1856).  He  continued 
his  researches  in  this  field,  and  in  1860  he  duplicated  the 
success  of  his  first  work  by  publishing  the  first  two  volumes 
of  his  History  of  the  United  Netherlands.  It  was  eight  years 
before  the  last  two  volumes  were  ready  .to  be  added  to  this 
monumental  work.  A  few  years  later  he  completed  his 
last  contribution  to  Dutch  history,  The  Life  and  Death  of 
John  of  Barneveld  (1874).  In  Europe  as  well  as  in  America 
Motley's  histories  are  still  recognized  to  be  of  the  first  class 
both  for  careful  research  and  judicious  analysis  of  causes 
and  effects  in  history,  and  for  the  brilliance  and  power  of 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group     227 

his  style.  While  the  subject-matter  of  his  histories  is  for 
eign  to  our  own  country,  Motley's  enthusiasm  for  democratic 
ideals  and  his  zeal  for  human  liberty  and  the  heroic  sacrifices 
men  have  made  for  it  make  his  work  thoroughly  American 
in  spirit. 

George  Bancroft  and  John  Fiske.  George  Bancroft  (1800- 
1891)  and  John  Fiske  (1842-1901)  devoted  themselves 
almost  entirely  to  American  history.  Bancroft  gave  the 
best  efforts  of  his  life  to  his  History  of  the  United  States 
(1834-1882),  published  in  six  volumes.  This  work  is 
notable  both  for  its  scholarly  accuracy  and  for  its  simple 
and  effective  style.  Fiske,  though  a  younger  writer  than 
the  other  members  of  the  school,  holds  a  secure  place  as  a 
scholarly  historian  and  as  an  expository  philosopher.  His 
chief  merit  lies  in  his  ability  to  present  in  clear  and  con 
vincing  style  the  complex  problems  of  history  and  philosophy 
without  unduly  antagonizing  the  preconceived  notions  of 
his  readers.  His  best  works  are  The  Discovery  of  America, 
The  Beginnings  of  New  England,  The  American  Revolution, 
The  Idea  of  God,  and  Essays  Historical  and  Literary. 

Francis  Parkman.  For  younger  readers  the  historical 
works  of  Francis  Parkman  (1823-1893)  take  precedence  in 
interest  over  all  others  in  this  class  of  writing.  His  long 
series  of  volumes  covering  the  struggle  between  the  English 
and  French  colonists  in  North  America  and  his  entrancing 
first  volume,  detailing  an  adventurous  trip  made  into  the 
Western  wilderness  in  1846,  make  up  the  most  fascinating 
and  trustworthy  historical  narratives  that  have  so  far 
appeared  in  America.  The  California  and  Oregon  Trails 
(1847-49),  Parkman's  first  volume,  is  a  good  one  for  the 
young  -reader  to  begin  with.  It  is  as  thrilling  as  an  imag 
inative  story  of  adventure,  and  yet  it  is  all  true  to  fact, 
being  based  on  historical  records  and  the  actual  personal, 
experiences  of  the  adventurous  young  historian.  After 
the  exposure  incident  to  the  collection  of  the  material  for 


228  History  of  American  Literature 

his  first  volume,  Parkman's  health  failed,  and  he  suffered 
an  affliction  of  the  eyes  which  left  him,  like  Prescott,  almost 
blind.  With  a  courage  and  fortitude  born  of  genius,  he 
overcame  all  obstacles  and  continued  to  gather  material 
for  his  series  of  volumes  dealing  with  the  history  of  the 
colonial  period  and  Indian  life.  He  had  already  prepared 
the  manuscript  for  the  first  of  these  volumes,  The  Con 
spiracy  of  Pontiac  (1851),  when  another  affliction  left  him 
lame  for  life.  After  an  interval  of  fourteen  years  there 
began  to  appear  in  due  succession  seven  other  volumes 
dealing  with  the  same  general  theme,  "France  and  England 
in  North  America."  Perhaps  after  the  two  books  already 
mentioned,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (1884)  and  A  Half  Century 
of  Conflict  (1892)  are  the  most  entertaining  of  Parkman's 
output. 

Summary.  Looking  back  in  a  brief  survey  of  this  dis 
tinguished  group  of  New  England  historians,  we  may  con 
clude  that  Motley  and  Parkman  are  the  greatest  from 
the  point  of  view  of  literary  grace  and  power;  that  Prescott 
is  the  most  romantic,  and  for  that  reason  perhaps  the  most 
entertaining  for  the  average  reader;  and  that  Bancroft 
and  Fiske  are  the  most  scientific.  For  the  young  reader 
Parkman  is  far  and  away  the  most  desirable  one  to  begin 
with  in  the  effort  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  historical  reading. 

Two  later  New  England  essayists.  Among  the  many 
skilful  recent  writers  of  prose  in  New  England  two  names 
seem  to  have  emerged  above  the  mass  because  of  the 
peculiarly  original  and  individual  note  in  their  productions, 
—  namely,  Dr.  Samuel  McChord  Crothers  (1857-)  and 
Gerald  Stanley  Lee  (1862-).  Dr.  Crothers  was  born  in 
Illinois,  but  he  was  educated  in  the  East  and  became  thor 
oughly  inoculated  with  the  New  England  spirit.  After 
graduation  at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School,  he  spent  about 
five  years  as  a  Presbyterian  minister  in  the  far  West,  and 
then  became  a  Unitarian  preacher  and  returned  to  New 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group     229 

England  to  occupy  several  pulpits,  the  last  and  most  impor 
tant  one  being  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts.  Rather 
late  in  life  he  began  contributing  essays  to  The  Atlantic 
Monthly,  and  from  time  to  time  he  has  collected  these  into 
books,  such  as  The  Gentle  Reader  (1903),  The  Pardoner's 
Wallet  (1905),  By  the  Christmas  Fire  (1908),  Humanly 
Speaking  (1912).  With  his  refinement  of  feeling,  his  charm 
of  style,  his  gentle  culture,  and  quiet  yet  pervasive  humor, 
Dr.  Crothers  has  endeared  himself  to  a  host  of  readers. 
One  critic  asserts  that  no  essays  since  the  days  of  the  "Auto 
crat"  have  pleased  the  American  public  more  than  have 
these  essays  by  Dr.  Crothers.  Entirely  different  in  style 
and  general  subject-matter  is  the  work  of  Gerald  Stanley 
Lee,  another  New  England  minister.  He  was  born  in 
Massachusetts  and  educated  at  Yale  Divinity  School, 
becoming  a  Congregational  minister  in  1888.  Since  1898 
he  has  been  a  lecturer  and  general  writer  on  the  arts  in 
modern  times.  He  is  possessed  of  a  vigorous,  trenchant 
style,  and  at  times  he  is  emphatically  modern  in  his  diction. 
He  has  original  ideas,  however,  and  he  rarely  fails  to  attract 
and  hold  the  attention  of  his  readers.  He  is  a  milder,  saner 
sort  of  twentieth-century  Carlyle,  interpreting  human 
nature  in  new  terms  for  the  new  age.  His  best  books  are 
The  Child  and  the  Book,  a  Constructive  Criticism  of  Education 
(1902);  The  Lost  Art  of  Reading  (1902);  The  Voice  of  the 
Machines,  an  Introduction  to  the  Twentieth  Century  (1906); 
Crowds,  a  Moving  Picture  of  Democracy  (1913);  and  We,  a 
Confession  of  Faith  for  Americans  During  and  After  the 
War  (1916). 

THE    MINOR    POETS    OF    NEW    ENGLAND 

Preliminary  statement.  The  New  England  poets  outside 
of  the  major  group,  including  Emerson,  Longfellow, 
Whittier,  Holmes,  and  Lowell,  need  merely  passing  con 
sideration.  One  of  them,  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich,  however, 


230  History  of  American  Literature 

approaches  very  nearly  to  the  rank  of  the  major  group  and 
deserves  special  mention  here;  and  Josiah  Gilbert  Holland 
may  also  be  said  to  have  reached  a  wider  popular  audience 
than  most  of  the  other  minor  poets.  After  treating  these 
briefly  and  recording  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  other  minor 
New  England  poets,  we  must  make  some  brief  mention  of 
the  so-called  "New  Poetry,"  which  has  taken  its  rise  chiefly 
in  New  England  and  in  the  Middle  West  during  the  first 
two  decades  of  the  twentieth  century. 

Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich.  Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich  (1836- 
1907)  belongs  with  Edmund  Clarence  Stedman  and  Bayard 
Taylor  in  the  group  of  literary  men  who  deserve  high  com 
mendation  for  their  accomplishment  in  several  spheres  of 
literary  activity,  but  who  perhaps  fall  just  a  little  short  of 
that  final  attainment  which  would  place  them  in  the  first 
rank.  Aldrich  was  born  in  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire, 
and  though  he  lived  for  short  periods  in  New  Orleans  and 
New  York,  he  spent  the  happiest  days  of  his  boyhood  in 
the  New  England  town,  as  The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy,  an 
autobiographical  reminiscence,  amply  proves.  He  engaged 
in  business  in  New  York,  but  in  1855,  upon  the  publication 
of  "The  Ballad  of  Baby  Bell"  and  other  poems  which 
gained  some  popular  success,  he  entered  upon  a  literary 
career.  He  was  connected  with  several  New  York  papers, 
and  published  a  number  of  volumes  of  prose  and  verse;  but 
he  seems  to  have  failed  to  attract  any  large  following. 
Just  after  the  Civil  War  he  removed  to  Boston  to  engage 
in  editorial  work,  and  here  he  made  his  home  until  his 
death  in  1907.  Between  1881  and  1890  he  was  editor  of 
The  Atlantic  Monthly,  a  position  which  is  usually  recognized 
as  the  very  highest  attainable  among  literary  journalists. 
Here  he  was  associated  with  practically  all  of  the  chief 
New  England  writers,  and  he  aspired  in  his  own  creative 
work  to  be  ranked  with  the  greatest.  His  early  poetry  was 
touched  with  a  sort  of  extreme  sentimentalism,  "Baby 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    231 

Bell,"  the  tearful  ballad  which  first  brought  him  popular 
applause,  being  typical.  A  strong  inclination  for  the 
purely  sensuous  and  beautiful  no  doubt  led  him  into  some 
early  extravagances,  but  these  he  afterwards  carefully 
pruned  away,  so  that  his  later  work  shows  a  marked  re 
straint  and  refinement.  He  confesses  that  at  one  time  he 
was  entranced  by  mere  external  beauty  of  form  and  rhythm, 
but  that  in  his  maturer  attitude  toward  his  art  he  cared 
more  for  the  grace  and  beauty  that  dwell  with  unadorned 
truth.  There  seems  to  be  little  question,  however,  but 
that  Aldrich's  work  as  a  whole  is  overdone  in  its  refinement 
and  classic  polish.  Out  of  the  many  volumes  of  poetry  and 
prose  which  he  published,  there  must  be  selected  a  compar 
atively  small  volume  of  his  songs  and  sonnets  as  his  permanent 
contribution  to  our  poetry.  His  two  notable  prose  successes, 
The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy  (1869)  and  Marjorie  Daw  (1873), 
both  delightful  narratives,  will  doubtless  continue  to  hold 
a  high  place  among  the  best  American  stories. 

J.  G.  Holland.  Dr.  Josiah  Gilbert  Holland  (1819-1881) 
belongs  to  the  older  school  of  New  England  poets,  though 
he  was  born  as  late  as  1819,  the  year  in  which  Lowell  was 
born.  He  wrote  books  of  many  kinds  and  was  a  successful 
lyceum  lecturer.  His  long  narrative  poems,  Bitter-Sweet 
(1858)  and  Katrina  (1867),  reached  a  circulation  of  more 
than  a  hundred  thousand  copies  each,  and  it  may  be  said 
that  they  deserve  -the  broad  popular  approval  which  they 
attained.  Some  passages  from  his  longer  poems,  such,  for 
example,  as  the  cradle  song  from  Bitter-Sweet,  beginning, 

What  is  the  little  one  thinking  about? 
Very  wonderful  things,  no  doubt! 

Unwritten  history! 

Unfathomed  mystery! 

Yet  he  laughs  and  cries,  and  eats  and  drinks, 
And  chuckles  and  crows,  and  nods  and  winks, 
As  if  his  head  were  as  full  of  kinks 
And  curious  riddles  as  any  sphinx ! 


232  History  of  American  Literature 

have  become  popular  through  frequent  quotation  and 
declamation;  and  many  of  his  shorter  poems  have  secured 
a  similar  place  of  fixed  popularity  in  the  general  mind  of 
our  citizenship,  such,  for  example,  as  the  following  well- 
known  poem  in  irregular  sonnet  form: 

WANTED 

God  give  us  men!     A  time  like  this  demands 

Strong  minds,  great  hearts,  true  faith,  and  ready  hands; 

Men  whom  the  lust  of  office  does  not  kill; 

Men  whom  the  spoils  of  office  cannot  buy; 
Men  who  possess  opinions  and  a  will; 

Men  who  have  honor. —  men  who  will  not  lie; 
Men  who  can  stand  before  a  demagogue, 

And  damn  his  treacherous  flatteries  without  winking! 
Tall  men,  sun-crowned,  who  live  above  the  fog 

In  public  duty,  and  in  private  thinking: 
For  while  the  rabble,  with  their  thumb-worn  creeds, 
Their  large  professions  and  their  little  deeds, — 
Mingle  in  selfish  strife,  lo!  Freedom  weeps, 
Wrong  rules  the  land,  and  waiting  Justice  sleeps! 

After  he  was  fifty  Dr.  Holland  became  editor  of  Scribner's 
Monthly  and  lived  in  New  York,  but  his  most  significant 
work  was  produced  in  New  England. 

Women  poets.  New  England  has  been  particularly  pro 
ductive  of  women  poets  of  merit.  Foremost  among  these 
should  be  named  Julia  Ward  Howe  (1819-1910),  who  was 
engaged  in  the  abolition  and  other  reform  movements  and 
wrote  several  plays,  much  general  prose,  and  many  poems. 
Her  "Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,"  written  early  in  the 
Civil  War  under  the  stress  of  intense  emotion,  patriotic 
fervor,  and  religious  ecstasy,  is  the  only  production  of  Mrs. 
Howe's  which  has  survived  in  popular  favor.  Other  women 
poets  are  Lucy  Larcom  (1826-1893),  a  cotton-mill  worker  of 
Lowell,  Massachusetts,  who  wrote  many  pleasing  but  light 
and  sometimes  over-sentimental  poems  for  children;  Emily 
Dickinson  (1830-1886),  a  recluse  of  Amherst,  Massachusetts, 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    233 

author  of  a  number  of  very  short  and  tense  but  strikingly 
original  lyrics;  and  Celia  Thaxter  (1836-1894),  the  daughter 
of  a  lighthouse  keeper  and  author  of  highly  colored  but 
vivid  prose  in  her  volume  called  Among  the  Isles  of  Shoals, 
and  of  several  wellnigh  flawless  sea  poems,  such  as  "The 
Sandpiper."  Celia  Thaxter's  lyrics  are  especially  suitable 
for  young  readers,  and  they  have  been  frequently  included 
in  juvenile  reading  books.  Anna  Hempstead  Branch,  of 
Connecticut,  is  one  of  the  most  promising  of  the  younger 
women  poets  who  have  not  allied  themselves  with  the 
imagists  or  writers  of  free-verse.  She  published  a  prize 
poem,  "The  Road  'Twixt  Heaven  and  Hell,"  in  The  Cen 
tury  Magazine  in  1898.  She  has  since  issued  three  volumes 
of  excellent  poetry — The  Heart  of  the  Road  (1901),  The 
Shoes  that  Danced  (1905),  and  The  Rose  of  the  Wind  (i9io).1 
Some  minor  poets.  Among  the  minor  poets  of  the  New 
England  states,  mention  should  be  made  of  Samuel  Francis 
Smith  (1808-1895),  of  Boston,  a  Baptist  minister  who  wrote 
several  familiar  hymns  but  whose  greatest  success  was  his 
song  which  has  become  the  best  known  of  our  patriotic 
hymns  —  namely,  "America";2  Jones  Very  (1813-1880), 
a  native  of  Salem,  graduate  of  Harvard,  member  of  the 
transcendental  group,  and  author  of  a  large  number  of 
graceful  short  poems  and  sonnets;  John  Godfrey  Saxe 
(1816-1887),  of  Vermont,  a  clever  writer  of  humorous  verse; 
Thomas  William  Parsons  (1819-1892),  of  Massachusetts, 
author  of  an  excellent  translation  of  Dante's  Inferno  and  a 
number  of  other  poetical  works  of  a  distinctly  high  quality ; 


1  See  note  on  p.  140. 

2  S.  F.  Smith  was  a  member  of  the  famous  Harvard  class  of  1829,  an'd 
is  referred  to  as  follows  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  in  the  poem,    "The 
Boys,"  read  at  the  reunion  of  the  class  on  its  thirtieth  anniversary: 

And  here's  a  nice  youngster  of  excellent  pith, — 
Fate  tried  to  conceal  him  by  naming  him  Smith: 

But  he  shouted  a  song  for  the  brave  and  the  free, — 
Just  read  on  his  medal,  "  My  Country  of  theel" 

16 


234  History  of  American  Literature 

and  George  Edward  Woodberry  (1855-),  of  Massachusetts, 
for  a  number  of  years  connected  with  Columbia  University 
in  New  York  as  professor  of  comparative  literature,  equally 
praised  as  a  critic  and  general  essayist  and  as  a  poet,  particu 
larly  as  a  poet  of  broad  patriotism  and  philosophic  insight 
into  modern  life. 

THE    NEW    POETRY    IN    NEW    ENGLAND 

Edwin  Arlington  Robinson.  Among  the  score  or  more 
of  the  recent  New  England  poets,  Edwin  Arlington  Robinson 
(18693$,  Robert  Frost,  and  Amy  Lowell  may  be  singled  out 
for  special  consideration.  Mr.  Robinson  was  born  in 
Maine  and  educated  at  Harvard,  though  on  account  of  the 
decline  of  his  father's  health  he  left  college  before  he  gradu 
ated.  His  first  volume  of  poetry  was  called  The  Children 
of  the  Night  (1897),  a  rather  gloomy  book,  though  full  of 
promise.  It  contains  some  short  character  sketches  in  a 
somewhat  cynical  mood,  suggestive  of  the  similar  later 
work  of  Edgar  Lee  Masters.  Then  he  went  to  New  York 
to  try  to  make  his  way  by  writing.  In  1902  he  pub 
lished  a  volume  called  Captain  Craig,  containing  several 
long  poems  in  blank  verse  and  a  sheaf  of  lyrics  and  sonnets 
and  adaptations  from  the  Greek.  His  third  volume,  The 
Town  Down  the  River,  made  up  chiefly  of  character  studies, 
appeared  in  1910,  and  his  fourth,  The  Man  Against  the 
Sky,  in  1916.  It  will  be  seen  that  Mr.  Robinson  has  pub 
lished  rather  slowly,  but  he  has  shown  a  steady  growth  in 
his  art,  and  in  this  last  volume  he  has  reached  a  decidedly 
high  level  of  poetic  power.  Particularly  in  the  poem  "Ben 
J'onson  Entertains  a  Man  from  Stratford"  has  he  succeeded 
in  presenting  a  lively  and  vigorous  portrait  of  two  notable 
characters  in  English  literature — namely,  Ben  Jonson  and 
William  Shakespeare.  The  title  poem,  too,  "The  Man 
Against  the  Sky,"  and  the  character  sketch  "Flammonde" 
are  excellent  poems.  Says  Miss  Lowell:  "Mr.  Robinson 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    235 

deals  with  something  which  may  fitly  be  called  raw  human 
nature,  but  human  nature  simple,  direct,  and  as  it  is.  Those 
last  three  words  contain  the  gist  of  the  whole  matter.  In 
them  lies  Mr.  Robinson's  gift  to  the  'New  Poetry';  simple, 
direct,  and  as  it  is."1 

Robert  Frost.  Robert  Frost  (1875-),  though  born  in 
California,  was  educated  in  New  England  and  finally  mar 
ried  and  engaged  in  farming  and  teaching  here  and  there 
in  New  Hampshire.  He  lived  in  England  from  1912  to 
1915,  and  here  his  first  volume,  A  Boy's  Will  (1913),  was 
published  and  warmly  praised  by  the  English  reviewers. 
Upon  his  return  to  America  he  intended  to  retire  to  his 
farm,  but  he  was  called  from  his  retreat  to  become  professor 
of  literature  at  Amherst  College  in  Massachusetts.  He  has 
studied  very  closely  the  strange  psychology  and  habits 
of  the  surviving  types  of  the  earlier  New  England  rural 
population.  In  the  poems  in  North  of  Boston  (1914)  and 
Mountain  Intervals  (1916),  the  author  sedulously  avoids  all 
of  the  ordinary  poetic  diction  and  ornamentation,  and  his 
style  is  notably  frank  and  sincere  in  the  presentation  of  the 
simple  New  Hampshire  rural  life.  But  over  all  the  familiar 
and  commonplace  incidents  which  he  chooses  to  write  about, 
Mr.  Frost  manages  to  cast  the  soft  light  of  genuine  poetry. 
He  merely  portrays  the  ordinary  daily  tasks,  such  as  the 
mending  of  a  broken  wall,  harvesting  the  apples,  or  picking 
the  blueberries,  presenting  them  from  the  farmer's  simple, 
human  point  of  view;  and  under  the  realism  of  his  homely 
style  these  everyday  incidents  take  on  a  genuine  poetic 
coloring  and  prove  to  be  subjects  well  worthy  of  poetic 
treatment. 

Amy  Lowell.  Miss  Lowell  (1874-)  is  a  member  of  the 
famous  Abbott  Lowell  family.  One  of  her  brothers,  A.  L. 
Lowell,  is  president  of  Harvard  University  Another  was 


^•Tendencies  of  Modern  American  Poetry,  p.  52. 


236 


History  of  American  Literature 


the  late  noted  astronomer,  Percival  Lowell.     Miss  Lowell 
is  the  best  known  of  the  modern  school  of  imagists  and 


AMY  LOWELL 


free- verse  poets.     In  A  Dome  of  Many-Colored  Glass  (1912), 
Sword  Blades  and  Poppy  Seed  (1914),  and  Men,  Women,  and 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  New  England  Group       237 

Ghosts  (1917),  Miss  Lowell  has  made  her  most  distinctive 
contribution  to  the  new  school  of  imagists,  known  popu 
larly  as  writers  of  free-verse.  Many  of  the  new  poets 
have  discarded  the  regular  stereotyped  forms  of  rhythm 
and  rime,  and  adopted  a  sort  of  irregular  phrasal  rhythm, 
by  which  they  claim  to  gain  more  freedom  in  unifying  the 
image  and  more  latitude  in  the  choice  of  the  exact  word 
which  will  convey  the  poetic  thought,  mood,  or  symbol  as 
conceived  by  the  imagination.  The  influence  of  the  imagists 
of  the  Orient,  particularly  the  poets  of  Japan  and  China, 
is  also  acknowledged;  and  it  is  evident  that  Walt  Whitman's 
free-rhythm  verse  has  had  considerable  weight  with  the 
new  poets  in  suggesting  the  invention  of  novel  verse  forms 
for  their  poems.  In  preparing  their  first  anthology,  Some 
Imagist  Poets  (1915),  they  laid  down  the  following  principles:1 

1.  To  use  the  language  of  common  speech,  but  to  employ  always 
the  exact  word,  not  the  nearly-exact,  nor  the  merely  decorative  word. 

2.  To  create  new  rhythms  —  as  the  expression  of  new  moods  —  and 
not  to  copy  old  rhythms,  which  merely  echo  old  moods.     We  do  not 
insist  upon  "free- verse"  as  the  only  method  of  writing  poetry.     We 
fight  for  it  as  for  a  principle  of  liberty.     We  believe  that  the  individ 
uality  of  a  poet  may  often  be  better  expressed  in  free-verse  than  in 
conventional  forms.     In  poetry  a  new  cadence  means  a  new  idea. 

3.  To  allow  absolute  freedom  in  the  choice  of  subject. 

4.  To  present  an  image  (hence  the  name:    "Imagist"). 

5.  To  produce  poetry  that  is  hard  and  clear,  never  blurred  nor 
indefinite. 

6.  Finally,  most  of  us  believe  that  concentration  is  of  the  very 
essence  of  poetry. 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  nothing  very  new  in  these 
principles.  The  essentials  of  the  new  poetry  may  be  said 
to  have  been  announced  by  Poe  in  his  essay  on  "The  Poetic 


iQuoted  from  Miss  Lowell's  Tendencies  in  Modern  American  Poetry. 
The  English  members  of  the  imagist  group  represented  in  Some  Imagist 
Poets,  published  successively  in  1914,  1915,  and  1916,  are  Richard  Aldington, 
F.  S.  Flint,  and  D.  H.  Lawrence;  and  the  American  representatives  are  Amy 
Lowell,  "H.  D.,"  and  John  Gould  Fletcher. 


238  History  of  American  Literature 

Principle."  '  He  argued  for  originality  of  expression,  for.  the 
creation  of  new  rhythms  to  express  new  moods,  and  for 
concentration  or  brevity  of  poetic  expression;  and  all  poets 
strive  for  the  exact  word,  for  vivid  images,  and  for  clear  and 
distinct,  if  not  "hard,"  effects  in  their  verse.  Whatever  the 
worth  or  the  final  effects  of  this  new  type  of  verse  may  be, 
we  must  admit  that  the  imagists  have  at  least  helped  to 
bring  about  a  marked  revival  of  interest  in  poetry  during 
the  past  decade,  and  we  may  confidently  hope  that  out  of 
this  revival  of  interest  there  will  eventually  emerge  some 
products  of  permanent  value.  "The  Gift"  by  Miss  Lowell 
will  illustrate  the  imagists'  art  in  its  simpler  forms: 

THE   GIFT 

See!     I  give  myself  to  you,  Beloved! 

My  words  are  little  jars 

For  you  to  take  up  and  put  on  a  shelf. 

Their  shapes  are  quaint  and  beautiful, 

And  they  have  many  pleasant  colors  and  lustres 

To  recommend  them. 

Also  the  scent  from  them  fills  the  room 

With  sweetness  of  flowers  and  crushed  grasses. 

When  I  shall  have  given  you  the  last  one 
You  will  have  the  whole  of  me, 
But  I  shall  be  dead. 

Miss  Lowell  has  also  written  a  good  deal  of  criticism  on  the 
new  poetry,  as  in  her  recent  volume,  Tendencies  in  Modern 
American  Poetry  (1917),  and  she  is  generally  acknowledged 
to  be  the  leader  of  the  school  of  imagists  both  in  England 
and  in  America.  Two  other  American  poets  are  distinctly 
identified  with  this  school— namely,  "H.  D."  (1886-), 
Miss  Hilda  Doolittle,  of  Philadelphia,  now  the  wife  of  the 
English  imagist  poet,  Richard  Aldington,  herself  an  ex 
tremely  sensitive  artist  in  impressionistic  free- verse;  and 
John  Gould  Fletcher1  (1886-),  of  Little  Rock,  Arkansas. 

1  For  a  discussion  of  Mr.  Fletcher's  work,  see  page  361. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    239 

THE    NEW   ENGLAND    WRITERS    OF    FICTION 

The  importance  of  New  England  fiction.  Until  very  re 
cently  the  writers  of  fiction  in  all  parts  of  our  country  seem 
to  have  taken  precedence  over  the  poets  and  general  prose 
writers,  both  in  number  and  in  popularity.  Certainly  in  New 
England  during  the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
novelists  and  short-story  writers  easily  assume  the  place  of 
greatest  importance.  We  may  begin  with  Hawthorne  and 
trace  the  succession  of  writers  of  fiction  on  down  through 
Louisa  May  Alcott,  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  Thomas  Bailey 
Aldrich,  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr., 
Donald  G.  Mitchell,  William  Dean  Howells,  Henry  James, 
Sarah  Orne  Jewett,  Alice  Brown,  Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman, 
and  dozens  of  minor  writers  of  fiction.  Of  these  we  have 
treated  Hawthorne  somewhat  at  length  elsewhere. 

Louisa  M.  Alcott.  Louisa  May  Alcott  (1832-1888),  the 
daughter  of  the  noted  transcendent alist,  Bronson  Alcott, 
wrote  a  number  of  books  which  have  for  many  years  held 
their  place  at  the  very  top  of  our  juvenile  classics.  Little 
Women  appeared  in  1868,  and  it  was  an  immense  success 
from  the  very  first.  It  was  followed  by  other  volumes  in 
the  same  vein,  among  them  Little  Men,  An  Old-Fashioned 
Girl,  Eight  Cousins,  and  Rose  in  Bloom.  Many  an  American 
boy  and  girl  has  learned  to  read  good  books  by  the  frequent 
thumbing  of  these  well-known  juveniles.  The  moral  tone 
is  high,  the  home  atmosphere  attractive,  and  the  style 
vigorous  and  sympathetic.  In  fact,  these  books  leave  little 
to  be  desired  as  stories  for  young  folks. 

Harriet  Beecher  Stowe:  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin."  Though 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  (1811-1896)  is  the  author  of  a  dozen 
or  more  volumes,  she  is  best  known  by  a  single  book,  Uncle 
Tom's  Cabin  (1852).  By  lighting  upon  the  exact  psycho 
logical  moment  in  the  happy  coincidence  of  a  popular  national 
theme  with  the  temper  and  thought  of  the  time,  Mrs.  Stowe 
made  of  this  book  one  of  the  most  powerful  influences  in 


240  History  of  American  Literature 

the  history  of  our  country.  Without  a  doubt,  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin  was  one  of  the  big  forces  which  helped  to  bring  about 
the  Civil  War;  and  since  it  voiced  the  sentiment  of  so  large 
a  number  of  our  people  and  was  on  the  successful  side  in  the 
issue  of  the  abolition  of  negro  slavery  in  America,  it  has 
inevitably  taken  its  place  as  a  classic  in  our  literature.  It 
has  no  great  merit  purely  as  a  work  of  art :  it  over-idealizes 
the  negro  in  making  him  nobler  in  character  than  the  white 
people  themselves,  it  is  crude  and  faulty  in  plot  structure, 
it  is  sensational  in  many  of  its  incidents,  it  is  an  avowed 
purpose  novel;  and  yet  in  its  evident  sincerity  of  purpose, 
in  its  fervid  emotional  appeal,  and  in  its  intense  zeal  for  the 
reform  of  the  evils  which  it  portrays,  the  book  rises  into  the 
realm  of  power  if  not  of  pure  art. 

Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr.  Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr. 
(1815-1882),  wrote  the  well-known  sea  tale,  Two  Years 
before  the  Mast  (1840).  It  is  the  realistic  story  of  his  own 
experiences  in  a  long  cruise  on  a  sailing  vessel  from  Boston 
around  Cape  Horn  to  California  and  back.  For  graphic 
description,  stirring  incident,  and  romantic  interest,  the 
book  is  a  prime  favorite  with  young  readers. 

Donald  G.  Mitchell.  Donald  Grant  Mitchell  (1822-1908), 
a  native  of  Connecticut  and  a  graduate  of  Yale,  won  wide 
popularity  through  his  sentimentalized  essays  strung  on  a 
thin  thread  of  romance  in  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor  (1850)  and 
Dream  Life  (1857)  published  under  the  pen-name  of  "Ik 
Marvel."  The  light  and  genial  humor,  dreamy  idealism, 
and  persistent  optimism,  and  the  delicate  and  tender  senti 
ment  which  is  infused  into  these  volumes  keep  them  alive 
among  a  certain  class  of  readers.  Mitchell's  later  and.  more 
pretentious  nature  prose  in  Wet  Days  at  Edgewood  and  My 
Farm  at  Edgewood  and  his  warmly  appreciative  literary 
criticism  in  English  Lands,  Letters,  and  Kings  and  American 
Lands  and  Letters,  though  pleasantly  written  and  more 
highly  esteemed  by  their  author  than  his  earlier  more 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    241 

romantic  work,  have  not  reached  the  wide  circle  of  readers 
which  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor  and  Dream  Life  commanded 
and  still  command. 

Other  novelists  and  short-story  writers.  Among  the 
better  class  of  short  stories  Edward  Everett  Hale's  master 
piece,  "The  Man  without  a  Country"  (1863),  should  be 
remembered.  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps  Ward  (1844-1911), 
of  Massachusetts,  made  almost  a  sensation  with  her  Gates 
Ajar  (1868),  a  book  which  is  more  of  a  rhapsody  or  mystical 
revelation  of  religious  enthusiasm  than  a  novel,  a  sort  of 
death  song  in  prose  representing  the  intense  spirit  of  rein 
carnated  New  England  Puritanism  in  its  rapt  vision  of  a 
new  heaven  and  a  new  earth  made  sacred  through  suffering. 
The  Civil  War  had  but  recently  closed  when  the  book 
appeared,  and  thousands  of  persons  who  had  lost  their 
loved  ones  in  that  terrible  period  found  solace  and  comfort 
in  the  ecstatic  vision  set  forth  in  Gates  Ajar.  Among  Mrs. 
Ward's  later  works  is  Beyond  the  Gates  (1883),  which  con 
tinues  the  theme  of  her  first  famous  work.  She  is  somewhat 
more  of  a  moralist  than  an  artist  perhaps,  but  her  intense 
subjectivity  and  exalted  idealism  give  a  peculiar  power  to 
her  stories,  especially  in  soothing  the  hearts  and  stirring  the 
moral  natures  of  her  many  sympathetic  readers.  Rose 
Terry  Cooke  (1827-1892),  of  Connecticut,  is  both  poet  and 
short-story  writer.  She  is  particularly  happy  in  her  humor 
ous  characterization  of  New  England  types.  Her  best 
stories  are  collected  in  The  Deacon's  Week  (1884)  and 
Huckleberries  Gathered  from  New  England  Hills  (1891). 
Mary  E.  Wilkins  Freeman  (1857-)  and  Sarah  Orne  Jewett 
(1849-)  have  written  a  number  of  excellent  short  stories  of 
New  England  life.  Mrs.  Freeman's  best  volumes  of  short 
stories  are  A  Humble  Romance  (1887)  and  A  New  England 
Nun  and  Other  Stories  (1891).  Miss  Jewett 's  best  short 
stories  are  collected  in  the  volumes  called  A  White  Heron 
and  Other  Stories  (1886)  and  Strangers  and  Wayfarers  (1890). 


242  History  of  American  Literature 

Both  of  these  women  have  written  longer  stories,  Mrs. 
Freeman's  best  novels  being  Pembroke  (1894)  and  The 
Portion  of  Labor  (1901) ;  and  Miss  Jewett's  best  longer  works, 
Deephaven  (1871)  and  The  Country  of  the  Pointed  Firs 
(1896).  Alice  Brown  (1857-)  of  New  Hampshire,  is  another 
women  writer  who  has  made  good  use  of  New  England 
rural  types  in  her  fiction.  Her  dialect  stories  in  Meadow 
Grass  (1895),  Tiverton  Tales  (1899),  and  The  Country  Road 
(1906)  form  her  most  distinctive  contribution  to  the  New 
England  local-color  literature  already  made  familiar  by  the 
work  of  Miss  Jewett  and  Mrs.  Freeman.  Some  critics  are 
inclined  to  rank  Miss  Brown's  work  even  higher  than  that 
of  the  two  other  women  just  named.  In  the  faithful  repro 
duction  of  the  New  England  atmosphere,  in  humor,  pathos, 
and  photographic  realism,  and  in  beauty  and  grace  of  style, 
Miss  Brown's  stories  are  certainly  among  the  most  artistic 
products  of  their  kind.  In  her  longer  novels,  too,  such  as 
The  Story  of  Thyrza  (1909)  and  John  Winterborne' s  Family 
(1910),  she  has  maintained  a  similarly  high  level.1 

William  Dean  Howells:  his  literary  position.  Two  im 
portant  realists  among  New  England  fiction  writers  have 
been  reserved  for  the  close  of  this  section  —  namely,  William 
Dean  Howells  and  Henry  James,  Jr.  Though  born  and 
reared  in  Ohio,  William  Dean  Howells  (1837-)  has  become 
intimately  associated  with  the  great  New  England  writers 
and  he  is  inevitably  classed  with  them.  He  learned  to 
set  type  in  his  youth,  and  he  may  be  said  to  have  educated 
himself  largely  at  the  printer's  case  and  at  editorial  desks. 
In  1860  with  his  friend  John  James  Piatt  he  published  a 
volume  called  Poems  of  Two  Friends.  Howells  then  wrote 
a  campaign  biography  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  and  in  1861 
he  was  rewarded  by  an  appointment  as  consul  at  Venice, 
a  position  which  he  filled  for  four  years.  Here  he  developed 
his  taste  and  increased  his  culture  by  a  close  study  of 

1  See  note  on  page  140. 


WILLIAM    DEAN   HOWELLS 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    243 

Italian  art  and  architecture.  His  four  years  in  Venice 
may  be  called  the  period  of  his  college  education.  As  a 
result  of  his  studies  he  published  two  excellent  books  of 
descriptive  and  critical  observation  —  namely,  Venetian 
Lije  and  Italian  Journeys.  These  were  but  the  preparation 
for  the  realistic  fiction  which  he  was  to  begin  soon  after  his 
return  to  America.  He  had  already  had  contributions 
accepted  by  The  Atlantic  Monthly,  and  in  1866  he  became 
assistant  editor  of  this  important  literary  periodical.  Then 
in  1871  he  was  made  editor-in-chief,  a  position  which  he  held 
for  ten  years.  Later  he  became  associated  with  Harper's 
Monthly  and  The  North  American  Review,  and  he  is  still 
(1919)  on  the  active  staff  of  Harper's  in  the  conduct  of  the 
Editor's  Easy  Chair.  During  this  long  period  of  over  half 
a  century  in  which  he  has  been  connected  with  these  promi 
nent  periodicals,  Mr.  Howells  has  produced  a  marvelous 
number  of  excellent  books.  He  is  ranked  among  the  very 
first  of  American  literary  critics,  travel  writers,  and  essay 
ists,  and  in  his  capacity  as  editor  and  adviser  of  young  writers 
he  has  justly  earned  the  affectionate  title  of  "Dean  of 
American  Letters."  With  his  added  accomplishments  as  a 
creative  writer  in  his  novels  and  literary  farces,  he  is  undoubt 
edly  the  most  distinguished  of  our  present-day  literary  men. 
His  novels.  Howells's  chief  claim  to  permanent  fame  rests 
upon  his  realistic  novels.  The  theory  of  fiction  which  he 
has  expanded  both  in  his  critical  writings  and  in  his  own 
practice  is  that  a  novel  should  present  life  as  it  really  is, 
without  the  admixture  of  romantic  elements  which  go  to 
make  up  the  larger  part  of  most  works  of  fiction.  He 
realized  that  the  artist  must  select  his  material  from  the 
mass  of  facts  presented  in  real  life  and  that  the  creative 
imagination  must  mold  this  material  into  an  artistic  whole; 
but  he  refused  to  admit  improbable  and  highly  colored  inci 
dents  and  romantic  settings  merely  to  increase  interest. 
Their  Wedding  Journey  (1871)  was  the  first  of  Howells's 


244  History  of  American  Literature 

long  series  of  realistic  narratives  dealing  with  New  England 
life  and  character.  Perhaps  the  best  among  his  thirty  or 
more  volumes  which  may  be  classed  as  fiction  are  A  Foregone 
Conclusion  (1874),  The  Lady  of  ikz  Aroostook  (1879),  A  Mod 
ern  Instance  (1882),  and  The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham  (1885). 
'Of  these  The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham  is  usually  considered 
Howells's  masterpiece.  It  certainly  takes  rank  among  the 
four  or  five  greatest  American  novels.  After  he  was  fifty 
years  of  age  Howells  came  under  the  influence  of  the  Russian 
philosopher  and  novelist  Tolstoi,  and  since  that  time  his 
works  have  shown  a  seriousness  of  purpose  in  the  criticism  of 
life  which  was  noticeably  absent  from  his  earlier  stories. 
Of  those  more  mature  stories  the  best  are  A  Hazard  of  New 
Fortunes  (1889),  The  World  of  Chance  (1893),  The  Traveler 
from  Altruria  (1894),  and  Through  the  Eye  of  a  Needle  (1907). 

His  farces.  In  another  type  of  literature  Howells  undoubt 
edly  takes  precedence  over  all  other  American  writers  — 
namely,  in  the  literary  farce.  The  farce  is  not  usually 
considered  among  the  finer  types  of  literature:  but  Howells 
has  put  into  his  farces  so  much  of  good,  healthy  humor;  so 
much  of  genial  satire,  sparkling  repartee,  and  brilliant  wit; 
so  much  of  keen  analysis  of  real  life  and  real  characters — 
that  his  productions  of  this  kind  must  inevitably  be  recog 
nized  as  belonging  to  pure  literature.  Among  the  best  of 
his  many  farces  are  A  Counterfeit  Presentment,  The  Parlor 
Car,  The  Sleeping  Car,  The  Elevator,  The  Mouse  Trap,  and 
The  Unexpected  Guest. 

Henry  James,  Jr.:  his  position.  Henry  James,  Jr. 
(1843-1915),  was  born  in  New  York  City,  lived  in  Boston 
for  a  time,  and  was  educated  partly  in  Boston  and  partly 
abroad.  He  doubtless  inherited  his  tendency  toward 
subtle  psychological  analysis  from  his  father,  Henry  James, 
the  distinguished  New  England  theologian;  this  point  may 
be  further  substantiated  by  noting  that  the  late  William 
James,  the  brother  of  Henry  James,  Jr.,  was  recognized  as 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   New  England  Group    245 

the  greatest  American  psychologist.  In  1869  Henry  James, 
Jr.,  went  abroad,  and  he  lived  most  of  his  later  life  in  France 
and  England.  In  fact,  so  continuous  was  his  residence  in 
England  that  by  many  he  is  considered  as  an  English  rather 
than  an  American  writer.  Just  before  his  death  in  1915, 
when  the  United  States  had  not  yet  declared  war  against 
Germany,  he  renounced  his  allegiance  to  America  and 
claimed  citizenship  in  England  in  order  to  devote  his  prop 
erty  and  his  literary  gifts  more  fully  to  the  cause  of  the 
Allies  in  the  great  World  War.  But  we  may  claim  the 
works  of  this  writer  as  at  least  partially  American,  and  as 
such  we  are  led  to  class  him  with  the  New  England  rather 
than  the  New  York  School. 

His  fiction.  The  fiction  of  Henry  James,  Jr.,  is  usually 
judged  to  be  too  difficult  for  young  readers.  He  is,'  like 
'Browning  in  poetry,  a  sort  of  "subtle  analyst  of  the  soul,"  and 
in  his  psychological  studies  he  deals  with  material  which  is 
uninteresting  because  it  is  peculiar  and  unusual  and  largely 
unintelligible  to  young  readers.  But  to  older  and  more 
thoughtful  readers  James's  work,  particularly  his  earlier 
fiction,  is  a  source  of  delight.  In  his  later  work  his  style 
becomes  so  complex,  so  hair-splitting  in  thought,  and  so 
shadowy,  figurative,  and  obscure  in  expression,  that  very  few 
readers  can  follow  him  with  pleasure.  He  has  been  called 
the  international  novelist,  because  most  of  his  books  have  a 
sort  of  international  setting  and  deal  with  the  peculiar 
point  of  view  of  persons  of  one  nationality  when  brought  into 
contrast  with  those  of  another  nationality.  His  best  stories 
are  The  American  (1877),  Daisy  Miller  (1878),  An  Inter 
national  Episode  (1879),  The  Portrait  of  a  Lady  (1881),  and 
The  Wings  of  a  Dove*  (1902).  Among  his  best  short  stories 
may  be  named  "The  Real  Thing,"  "The  Lesson  of  the 
Master,"  and  "Sir  Edmund  Orne,"  a  ghost  story.  James's 
books  of  literary  criticism,  like  his  novels,  demand  close 
attention  in  the  reading.  His  fine  analysis  of  the  style  of 


246  History  of  American  Literature 

our  greatest  novelist  in  his  critical  volume  Nathaniel  Haw 
thorne  in  the  English  Men  of  Letters  Series  deserves  special 
mention.  James  has  done  much  critical  work  also  in 
foreign  literature,  especially  in  his  admirable  estimates  of 
French  authors. 

3.     THE  SOUTHERN  GROUP 

PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 

General  conditions  in  the  South.  The  South  was  some 
what  slower  than  the  North  in  developing  her  literary 
resources.  It  is  true  that  during  the  colonial  period,  the 
first  literature  written  within  the  present  boundaries  of  the 
United  States  was  produced  in  the  Virginia  Colony;  but 
the  attitude  of  the  settlers  in  the  Southern  Colonies  toward 
literature  was  always  amateurish  and  incidental  rather  than 
professional  and  serious,  and  the  result  was  that  very  few* 
of  the  greater  minds  in  the  South  during  the  first  two  and 
a  half  centuries  of  our  history  turned  to  literature  as  the 
principal  sphere  for  their  intellectual  efforts.  And  even 
since  1865,  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  large  cities  and  the 
almost  total  absence  of  publishing  facilities,  there  have  been 
no  nationally  important  literary  centers  in  the  South.  In 
a  section  devoted  largely  to  varied  agricultural  pursuits, 
the  people  are  naturally  widely  scattered  and  diverse  in 
mode  of  life  and  thinking.  On  the  other  hand,  in  more 
concentrated  and  congested  centers  where  commercial  and 
manufacturing  interests  attract  the  population  into  large 
city  groups,  we  should  naturally  expect  literary  centers 
and  publishing  interests  to  be  developed.  In  the  North 
and  East,  even  before  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Boston  had  already 
grown  into  comparatively  large  commercial  and  manu 
facturing  centers.  In  the  South  there  were  scarcely  any 
large  cities  or  thickly  populated  districts  even  up  to  the  end 
of  the  century.  Baltimore,  Charleston,  Savannah,  and 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         247 

New  Orleans  were  ports  of  some  importance,  it  is  true; 
but  with  the  single  exception  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  the 
inland  cities  such  as  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  and  Raleigh, 
North  Carolina,  were  small  in  size  and  of  little  significance 
as  literary  centers. 

Charleston  and  Richmond  as  literary  centers.  Of  all 
these  towns  Charleston  and  Richmond  are  the  only  ones 
that  may  be  said  to  have  become  in  any  sense  literary  centers. 
At  Charleston  William  Gilmore  Simms  was  a  sort  of  leader 
around  whom  a  number  of  ambitious  young  men  like  Paul 
Hamilton  Hayne  and  Henry  Timrod  gathered,  deferring 
to  his  judgment  and  regarding  him  in  literary  matters  as 
guide,  philosopher,  and  friend.  Besides  Simms's  home, 
John  Russell's  book  store  was  one  of  their  places  of  meeting. 
Here  in  1857,  the  same  year  in  which  The  Atlantic  Monthly 
was  founded,  Russell's  Magazine  was  launched  under  the 
editorship  of  Paul  Hamilton  Ha^ne.1  This  periodical  bade 
fair  to  become  a  strong  rival  of  The  Southern  Literary 
Messenger  at  Richmond,  but  it  suspended  publication  at 
the  approach  of  the  Civil  War.  The  dominant  attitude  of 
the  Southern  people  seemed  to  be  one  of  receptivity  rather 
than  active  participation  in  literary  matters.  The  Southern 
colonial  gentleman  preferred  to  get  his  education  and  his 
literature  from  England.  Moreover,  he  looked  upon  liter 
ature  as  a  means  of  diversion  and  amusement  for  his  idle 
moments  rather  than  as  a  serious  employment  for  his 
mature  powers.  To  him  the  management  of  his  estate  and 
participation  in  politics  made  up  the  serious  business  of 
life.  Even  until  late  in  the  century,  the  common  schools 
of  the  South  lagged  far  behind  the  system  of  public  educa 
tion  developed  in  the  North  and  East.  The  methods  of 
intercommunication  were  inadequate  and  poorly  main 
tained.  Roads  were  bad,  and  mail  routes  were  slow  and 


!See  Hayne's  essay  on  "Ante-bellum  Charleston,"  reprinted  in  Library 
of  Southern  Literature,  Vol.  V. 


248  History  of  American  Literature 

uncertain.  Periodicals  were  few  in  number  and  com 
manded  only  a  meager  patronage  among  the  richer  families. 
The  Southern  Literary  Messenger  (1834-1864)  at  Richmond 
attained  under  the  editorship  of  Poe,  Thompson,  and  others, 
a  notable  rank,  it  is  true,  in  the  quarter  of  a  century  imme 
diately  preceding  the  Civil  War,  but  even  this  journal  was 
forced  to  suspend  publication  near  the  close  of  the  war. 

The  influence  of  slavery.  The  economic  success  of  negro 
slave-hplding  on  Southern  plantations  had  drawn  most  of 
the  slaves  from  the  North  and  the  East  where  slave 
labor  was  unprofitable,  and  so  the  South  became  the  great 
slave  section  of  our  country  long  before  the  middle  of  the 
century.  Slave  traffickers  and  shipowners  had  found  a 
profitable  market  for  their  trade  in  the  South,  and  they 
prosecuted  their  business  so  successfully  as  to  fill  the  country 
with  African  slaves.  Though  there  were  a  few  Southern 
slave  owners  who  believed^  in  the  abolition  of  slavery,  the 
South  as  a  whole  naturally  took  the  position  that  slavery 
was  a  good  thing  both  for  the  black  and  for  the  white  race. 
The  question  of  states'  rights,  or  local  self-government  by 
the  individual  states,  was  closely  bound  up  with  the 
question  of  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  it  was  upon  the 
constitutional  grounds  of  states'  rights  that  the  argument 
for  the  continuation  of  slavery  in  the  South  was  primarily 
based.  The  policy  of  territorial  expansion  and  the  creation 
of  new  states  out  of  the  territory  acquired  by  the  Florida 
and  the  Louisiana  purchases  also  brought  the  question  of 
slavery  to  the  front,  for  it  was  necessary  to  determine 
beforehand  whether  the  states  to  be  carved  out  of  the  newly 
acquired  territory  should  be  free  or  slave-holding.  Out  of 
all  this  controversy  there  naturally  arose  in  the  South,  as 
also  in  the  North,  a  notable  school  of  orators. 

Robert  E.  Lee,  a  typical  Southerner.  Just  as  Washington 
and  Jefferson  may  be  considered  typical  Southern  figures 
in  the  earlier  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  civilization,  so 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        249 

Robert  Edward  Lee  (1807-1870)  may  be  singled  out  as  the 
culmination  of  the  later  Southern  chivalry.  He  was  born  of 
distinguished  Southern  ancestry,  bred  as  a  gentleman  of  the 
Old  South,  and  educated  as  a  soldier  at  the  national  military 
academy  at  West  Point.  The  world  has  recognized  him  as 
one  of  the  greatest  soldiers  of  modern  times,  but  we  are 
here  more  interested  in  him  as  a  typical  product  of  the  ante 
bellum  Southern  civilization  and  as  a  writer  of  simple, 
dignified  prose  in  his  private  letters  and  official  reports. 
He  possessed  all  the  kindliness,  gentility,  and  dignified 
reserve  of  the  Southern  planter  class.  His  home  at  Arling 
ton,  just  across  the  Potomac  River  at  Washington  City,  is 
still  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  distinctive  examples  of 
the  Colonial  type  of  the  Southern  home.  His  character  as 
a  man  even  exceeds  his  reputation  as  a  soldier.  He  was 
pure  and  unsullied  in  heart,  firm  and  upright  in  all  his  deal 
ings,  and  profoundly  religious  in  his  nature.  We  do  not 
think  of  him  at  all  as  a. literary  man,  and  yet  his  "Farewell 
Address  to  his  Soldiers"  and  many  of  his  private  letters  and 
official  reports,  both  as  commanding  general  of  the  Con 
federate  Army  and  as  president  of  Washington  and  Lee 
University  after  the  War,  are  models  of  the  unconscious 
simplicity,  dignity,  and  reserve  which  were  characteristic  of 
the  man.  His  definition  of  truth  as  "the  shortest  distance 
between  a  fact  and  the  expression  of  it,"  as  well  as  the 
following  well-known  maxims  from  his  advice  to  his  son, 
will  illustrate  the  cogency  and  precision  with  which  he 
expressed  his  thoughts. 

Frankness  is  the  child  of  honesty  and  courage. 

Never  do  a  wrong  to  make  a  friend  or  to  keep  one. 

Deal  kindly,  but  firmly,  with  all  your  classmates;  you  will  find  it 
the  policy  which  will  wear. 

Above  all,  do  not  appear  to  others  what  you  are  not. 

Duty,  then,  is  the  sublimest  word  in  our  language. 

Do  your  duty  in  all  things.  .  .  .  You  cannot  do  more;  yob  should 
never  do  less. 

17 


250  History  of  American  Literature 

Localism  in  recent  years.  Following  the  bitter  periods 
of  controversy,  war,  and  political  reconstruction,  which  we 
need  not  stop  to  discuss  here,  came  the  period  of  readjust 
ment  and  return  to  the  peaceful  arts  of  life.  During  this 
period  one  of  the  distinctive  features  developed  in  our 
national  literature  has  been  the  growth  of  localism  in  the 
various  sections  of  the  country.  In  the  South  particularly 
has  this  note  of  localism  found  many  well-defined  forms  of 
expression.  In  almost  every  Southern  state  there  have 
arisen  worthy  writers  of  fiction  and  verse  whose  principal 
appeal  has  been  in  the  interpretation  of  distinct  racial  types 
and  social  conditions  and  local  backgrounds.  The  fact 
that  there  are  certain  more  or  less  distinct  and  segregated 
groups  or  classes  of  people  in  the  South  has  greatly  stimu 
lated  the  endeavor  to  express  this  note  of  localism.  The 
Georgia  "cracker,"  the  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  moun 
taineer,  the  Louisiana  Creole,  the  Texas  cowboy  and  fron 
tiersman,  and  the  several  types  of  negro  life  are  some  of  the 
distinct  classes  which  have  attracted  treatment  in  this 
local-color  literature.  In  addition  to  these,  the  upper  or 
ruling  classes  of  white  citizens,  descended  from  the  early 
English  or  Anglo-Saxon  settlers,  have  distinct  and  more  or 
less  stable  local  characteristics. 

Classification  of  the  authors.  The  major  Southern  poets 
as  usually  named  are  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  Henry  Timrod,  Paul 
Hamilton  Hayne,  and  Sidney  Lanier.  It  is  difficult  to  single 
out  any  of  the  prose  writers  who  -rise  above  the  large  school 
of  minor  authors,  but  we  may  name  after  Poe,  who  is 
equally  notable  in  prose  and  poetry,  William  Gilmore  Simms 
and  John  Pendleton  Kennedy  among  the  older  writers,  and 
Joel  Chandler  Harris,  F.  Hopkinson  Smith,  Thomas  Nelson 
Page,  George  Washington  Cable,  and  O.  Henry  (Sydney 
Porter)  among  the  later  writers.  Simms  and  Kennedy  can 
hardly  be  ranked  as  authors  of  great  national  importance, 
though  Simms  approaches  such  a  standard;  but  their 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         251 

influence  in  the  South,  where  literature  was  slow  in  develop 
ing,  certainly  gives  them  a  prominent  place  in  their  own 
section.  Joel  Chandler  Harris  in  his  successful  exploitation 
of  negro  folklore,  and  in  his  incidental  character  creation, 
has  distinguished  himself  somewhat  more  prominently  than 
have  his  contemporary  writers  of  local-color  fiction;  and 
O.  Henry  has  made  a  place  for  himself  by  his  distinct 
advance  in  the  art  of  the  American  short  story.  We  may 
conveniently  discuss  the  Southern  authors  under  the  divis 
ions  of  Orators,  Poets,  and  Writers  of  Fiction. 

SOUTHERN    ORATORS 

Oratory  in  the  South.  Throughout  the  history  of  the 
nation  the  South  has  been  particularly  prolific  in  the  pro 
duction  of  distinguished  orators  and  political  writers. 
Southerners  have  always  seemed  to  take  more  naturally  to 
legal  and  forensic  debate,  political  writing,  and  oratory  than 
to  the  milder  and  more  purely  artistic  forms  of  literary 
expression.  They  have  uniformly  proved  themselves  to  be 
skilful  manipulators  of  public  bodies  in  spontaneous  spoken 
address.  In  fact,  the  energy  of  the  best  Southern  minds 
has  been  largely  expended  in  the  development  of  political 
and  other  forms  of  emotional  or  spontaneous  oratory.  For 
merly  in  the  South  every  ambitious  youth  turned  to  politics 
and  law  as  a  career,  and  rarely  thought  of  taking  up  pure 
literature  except  as  a  side  issue  or  with  some  feeling  of 
condescension.  During  the  earlier  periods  of  our  national 
history  such  names  as  Richard  Henry  Lee,  Patrick  Henry, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  George  Washington,  James  Madison, 
John  Marshall,  and  John  Randolph,  all  of  Virginia;  Charles 
Pinckney,  Henry  Laurens,  and  John  Rutledge  of  South 
Carolina;  and  William  Pinkney  of  Maryland  are  synony 
mous  with  the  best  of  early  American  oratorical  and  forensic 
power  and  achievement.  A  long  list  of  notable  Southerners 
who  have  risen  to  oratorical  eminence  since  these  early 


252  History  of  American  Literature 

times  might  be  given  here,  but  it  seems  better  to  confine 
our  brief  notice  to  a  few  of  the  most  important  orators  of 
the  nineteenth  century. 

William  Wirt.  William  Wirt  (1772-1834),  of  Maryland 
and  later  of  Virginia,  has  already  been  mentioned  as  the 
biographer  of  Patrick  Henry,  and  in  this  connection  it  was 
noted  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  just  how  much  of  Henry's 
famous  speech  on  liberty  we  owe  to  Wirt's  own  facile  and 
fluent  pen.  It  is  certain  that  Wirt  possessed  the  instinct 
for  effective  oratory,  as  is  amply  illustrated  by  his  famous 
speech  at  the  trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for  treason,  and  by  his 
oft-repeated  piece  called  "The  Blind  Preacher,"  said  to  be 
an  accurate  portrayal  of  the  Reverend  James  Waddell,  a 
noted  Presbyterian  minister  of  Virginia.  The  last-named 
selection  is  to  be  found  in  the  volume  called  Letters  of  a 
British  Spy  (1803),  a  series  of  letters  which,  the  author 
pretended,  were  left  in  an  American  inn  by  a  British  officer. 
This  and  The  Life  of  Patrick  Henry  (1817)  are  the  chief 
contributions  of  Wirt  to  our  literature.  He  wrote  in  a 
somewhat  florid  and  emotional  style,  but  he  had  acquired 
from  his  model,  the  Spectator  papers,  a  good  deal  of  the 
grace  and  finish  of  the  Addisonian  prose,  and  he  was  recog 
nized  in  the  early  nineteenth  century,  according  to  Professor 
Trent,  as  "the  most  conspicuous  literary  man  in  the  South." 

Henry  Clay,  John  C.  Calhoun,  and  Robert  Y.  Hayne. 
During  the  long  controversial  period  which  preceded  the 
Civil  War,  Henry  Clay  (1777-1852),  born  in  Virginia  but 
reared  in  Kentucky,  and  John  Caldwell  Calhoun  (1782- 
1850),  and  Robert  Young  Hayne  (1791-1839),  both  of  South 
Carolina,  were  the  most  prominent  of  the  earlier  Southern 
leaders  in  Congress.  Clay  was  a  natural  orator  and  a  born 
conciliator.  Because  of  his  efforts  to  compromise  the 
differences  between  the  North  and  the  South,  he  is  known 
in  history  as  "the  great  pacificator."  Calhoun  is  recognized 
as  the  profoundest  expositor  of  the  doctrine  of  states'  rights 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        253 

and  the  strict  construction  of  the  Constitution,  and  the 
chief  opponent  of  the  Northern  school  advocating  union 
and  strong  federal  centralization,  led  by  Daniel  Webster 
and  the  later  abolitionists.  Hayne  was  a  disciple  of  Calhoun 
in  his  interpretation  of  the  doctrine  of  states'  rights  and  the 
Constitution.  In  what  is  known  as  "The  Great  Debate" 
(1830),  Hayne  was  pitted  against  Webster.  While  history 
has  decided  in  favor  of  Webster's  position,  contemporary 
opinion  records  that  Hayne  proved  himself  a  worthy  oppo 
nent  to  the  great  New  England  orator. 

L.  Q.  C.  Lamar  and  Henry  W.  Grady.  Since  the  Civil 
War,  particularly  during  the  period  of  reconciliation  follow 
ing  the  period  of  reconstruction,  two  names  stand  out  with 
peculiar  prominence  in  the  banishment  of  sectional  animosity 
and  the  re- welding  of  the  North  and  the  South — namely, 
those  of  L.  Q.  C.  Lamar  (1825-1893),  of  Mississippi,  whose 
"Eulogy  on  Charles  Sumner"  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Ameri 
can  oratory,  and  Henry  Woodfin  Grady  (1851-1889),  of 
Georgia,  whose  eloquent  speeches  on  "The  New  South," 
delivered  in  1886  before  the  New  England  Society  of  New 
York  City,  "The  South  and  Her  Problems,"  delivered  at 
Dallas,  Texas,  in  1887,  and  "The  Race  Problem,"  delivered 
in  Boston  just  a  few  weeks  before  his  death  in  1889,  are 
recognized  as  three  of  the  most  impassioned  and  finished 
orations  in  our  literature.1 

THE  MAJOR  SOUTHERN  POETS 

Edgar  Allan  Poe.  Edgar  Allan  Poe  (1809-1849),  though 
descended  on  his  father's  side  from  a  distinguished  Mary 
land  family,  once  called  himself  a  Bostonian  because  he  was 
born  in  the  city  of  Boston;  but  he  was  reared  in  the  South, 
and  he  usually  designated  himself  as  a  Southerner,  and  he 
is  generally  so  regarded.  His  genius,  however,  knew  no 

iFor  Lamar's  "Eulogy  on  Sumner,"  extracts  from  Grady's  speeches,  and 
other  fully  edited  selections  from  Southern  prose  writers  and  poets,  see 
Payne's  Southern  Literary  Readings,  Rand  McNally  &  Co.,  1913. 


254  History  of  American  Literature 

restrictions  of  territory;  in  fact,  Poe  is  perhaps  the  most 
universally  detached  of  all  our  poets.  His  father,  David 
Poe,  was  educated  for  the  law,  but  a  predilection  for  the 
stage  led  him  to  join  a  traveling  theatrical  troupe  before  he 
built  up  a  practice.  In  this  troupe  he  met  Mrs.  C.  D. 
Hopkins,  a  talented  English  actress  whose  maiden  name 
was  Elizabeth  Arnold.  Shortly  after  the  death  of  Mr. 
Hopkins,  who  was  manager  of  the  company,  David  Poe 
married  the  widow.  Of  the  three  children — two  boys  and 
a  girl — born  to  David  and  Elizabeth  Arnold  Poe,  Edgar 
was  the  second  son. 

How  Poe  fell  in  with  the  Allans.  The  life  of  these  strolling 
actors  was  a  hard  one.  The  family  was  forced  to  travel 
from  city  to  city  in  order  to  earn  a  livelihood,  which  was  at 
best  precarious.  It  seems  that  the  mother  was  depended 
upon  to  support  the  family,  for  David  Poe  was  not  a  success 
ful  actor.  Mrs.  Poe  was  filling  an  engagement  in  Boston  at 
the  time  of  Edgar's  birth,  January  19,  1809.  Her  husband 
died  about  1810,  and  in  1811  she  found  herself  in  the  city  of 
Richmond,  Virginia,  helpless  and  stricken  with  illness.  An 
appeal  in  the  Richmond  newspapers  brought  material  relief; 
but  Mrs.  Poe  was  beyond  human  aid,  and  within  a  few  days 
she  died.  The  children,  thus  left  alone,  were  cared  for  by 
various  persons.  Edgar  had  attracted  the  attention  of  Mrs. 
John  Allan,  the  wife  of  a  well-to-do  tobacco  merchant,  and 
he  was  taken  into  her  childless  home  and  rechristened  Edgar 
Allan  Poe. 

Poe's  education.  The  boy  was  an  extremely  bright  and 
handsome  child,  and  his  precocity  attracted  much  attention. 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Allan  became  devotedly  attached  to  their 
ward  and  lavished  on  him  all  that  partiality  could  suggest  or 
wealth  supply.  In  1815  Mr.  Allan  moved  temporarily  to 
England  to  establish  there  a  branch  house  for  his  firm. 
Edgar,  who  accompanied  his  foster  parents,  attended  an 
English  boarding  school  near  London.  In  the  story  of 


From  a  rare  lithograph  portrait  made  in  18.59  by  F.  J.  Fisher, 
now  in  possession  of  the  Westmoreland  Club,  Richmond,  Va. 

EDGAR  ALLAN  POE 


256  History  of  American  Literature 

"William  Wilson"  Poe  gives  many  reminiscences  of  his 
school  life  there.  After  five  years  in  England  the  Allans 
returned  to  Richmond,  and  Edgar  was  placed  in  a  private 
school.  In  1826  he  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Virginia. 
Here  he  made  a  brilliant  record  in  the  .languages  and  in 
mathematics,  but  'he  indulged  in  drinking  and  gambling  and 
was  removed  from  the  university  within  a  year. 

Poe  goes  to  Boston:  "  Tamerlane."  Then  began  the  period 
of  wandering  and  unhappiness  brought  about  by  his  perverse 
disposition.  Mr.  Allan,  whose  patience  had  already  been 
sorely  tried,  took  Poe  into  his  office,  feeling  it  would  be 
better  for  the  boy  to  earn  his  own  living;  whereupon  Poe, 
who  was  now  about  eighteen  years  old,  left  home  to  seek 
his  fortune  in  Boston.  Here  he  succeeded  in  getting  a 
publisher  for  his  first  slender  volume  of  verses,  Tamerlane 
and  Other  Poems,  in  1827,  but  little  is  known  of  his  move 
ments  during  the  time  he  was  in  Boston. 

Poe's  military  experience.  The  next  we  hear  of  Poe,  he 
had  enlisted,  under  the  assumed  name  of  Edgar  A.  Perry, 
as  a  private  in  the  United  States  Army.  He  remained  in 
the  army  for  nearly  two  years,  being  promoted  to  the  post 
of  sergeant  major.  Part  of  the  time  he  was  stationed  at 
the  arsenal  of  Fort  Moultrie,  on  an  island  in  Charleston 
Harbor.  Here  he  gained  the  local  color  for  his  famous 
story,  "The  Gold  Bug,"  written  some  years  later.  Poe 
now  began  to  feel  the  folly  of  his  breach  with  his  foster 
parents,  and  on  hearing  that  Mrs.  Allan  was  critically  ill 
he  made  application  for  a  permit  to  visit  Richmond,  in 
order  that  he  might  see  her  before  her  death.  A  partial 
reconciliation  followed  between  him  and  Mr.  Allan,  who 
secured  Poe's  release  from  the  army,  and. with  the  aid  of 
influential  friends  obtained  for  him  an  appointment  to  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  But  the 
perversity  of  the  young  man's  nature  again  asserted  itself, 
and  in  less  than  a  year  he  began  to  tire  of  life  at  West  Point. 


'/          a/lti.    aJUj"—    ^      £•<>/•*•      ^-*-i-     "V-"-*-      •nvx^v?      -Wtoy*-*,      Vocnw      ,'f 


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Reproduced  from  the  Wrenn  Library,  Courtesy  of  the  University  of  Texas. 
FACSIMILE    OF   A    POE    LETTER 

This  interesting  letter  with  reference  to  the  poem  "Leonore!"  \Jfafc«j¥r5tten»bv  Poe*.tQe 
his  literary  adviser,  Rufus  W.  Griswolc}.'     •     * 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group         257 

He  deliberately  neglected  his  duties  until  he  had  accumulated 
demerits  enough  to  cause  his  dismissal. 

The  1831  edition  of  his  poems.  Before  he  entered  West 
Point,  another  edition  of  his  poems,  containing  some  new 
matter,  had  been  published;  and  in  1831  still  another  was 
brought  out.  This  volume  contained  the  first  draft  of 
some  of  Poe's  most  famous  poems,  notably  "To  Helen" 
and  "Israfel,"  which  are  now  universally  recognized  as 
masterpieces  in  the  pure  lyric. 

Poe's  first  stories.  Mr.  Allan  had  married  again  by  this 
time,  and  Poe,  finding  that  he  had  no  longer  any  hope  of 
a  reconciliation  with  his  foster  parent,  now  turned  to  his 
father's  relatives  for  help  and  sympathy.  He  made  various 
attempts  to  secure  employment,  but  was  unsuccessful.  In 
1833  he  won  with  his  "MS.  Found  in  a  Bottle"  the  fifty- 
dollar  prize  offered  by  The  Baltimore  Saturday  Visitor  for 
the  best  short  story  submitted.  Poe  sent  in  several  stories 
and  poems,  and  won  two  prizes,  the  second  being  twenty- 
five  dollars  for  the  best  poem;  but  the  judges  refused  to 
give  both  prizes  to  one  competitor. 

His  marriage:  editor  of  "The  Southern  Literary  Messenger" 
It  was  at  this  period  of  his  life  that  Poe's  love  for  his 
cousin,  Virginia  Clemm,  sprang  up.  She  was  a  beautiful 
girl  twelve  or  thirteen  years  of  age  at  the  time,  and  Poe 
desired  even  then  to  make  her  his  wife.  In  1835,  when  he 
had  secured  regular  employment  as  editor  of  The  Southern 
Literary  Messenger  of  Richmond,  Mrs.  Clemm  moved  to  that 
city,  and  Poe  and  Virginia  were  married,  the  latter  being 
then  not  quite  fourteen  years  old.  Poe  had  a  fixed  salary 
now,  and  his  success  seemed  assured.  His  articles,  stories, 
and  poems  were  attracting  wide  notice,  and  the  circulation 
of  the  Messenger  was  rapidly  increasing.  But  in  1837, 
perhaps  on  account  of  his  irregular  habits,  he  retired  from 
the  editorship  which  he  had  so  acceptably  filled  for  a  year 
or  more. 


258  History  of  American  Literature 

Other  editorial  positions:  more  short  stories.  Other  editorial 
schemes  were  now  tried.  Poe  went  first  to  New  York, 
then  to  Philadelphia,  and  did  some  literary  hack  work. 
In  1839  he  obtained  an  editorial  position  on  Burton's 
Gentleman's  Magazine,  but  within  a  year  he  severed  his 
connection  with  this  periodical.  He  published  in  1839  a 
volume  of  short  stories  called  Tales,  of  the  Grotesque  and 
the  Arabesque.  This  volume  brought  him  no  money,  but 
it  broadened  .his  fame.  In  1841  he  became  editor  of 
Graham's  Magazine,  and  within  a  few  months  the  circulation 
of  this  periodical  increased  from  five  thousand  to  thirty- 
seven  thousand.  Poe  was  now  publishing  some  of  his 
most  original  short  stories,  such  as  "The  Murders  in  the 
Rue  Morgue,"  "The  Masque  of  the  Red  Death,"  and 
others.  In  1842  the  erratic  editor  of  Graham's  Magazine 
was  supplanted  by  R.  W.  Griswold.1  The  story  goes  that 
Poe  disappeared  for  a  few  days,  as  was  his  peculiar  custom, 
and  when  he  returned  to  the  office  he  found  Griswold 
seated  in  the  editorial  chair.  Without  waiting  for  explana 
tions,  Poe  turned  on  his  heel  and  left  the  office.  He  con 
tinued,  however,  to  be  a  contributor  to  this  periodical. 

"The  Raven."  Other  ventures  in  editorial  work  and 
original  schemes  for  founding  an  independent  magazine 
occupied  Poe  at  this  time,  but  he  seems  never  to  have 
been  able  to  put  his  plans  into  operation  or  to  get  on  in 
the  world.  He  gained  wide  fame  through  "The  Raven," 
which  was  published  in  1845,  and  a  new  edition  of  his 
verses  with  this  poem  leading  in  the  title  was  issued  in  the 
fall  of  the  same  year.  The  next  year,  he  took  up  his  resi 
dence  in  the  famous  cottage  at  Fordham,  near  New  York 
City.  Here  he  tried  to  make  a  living  by  his  contributions 
to  various  magazines,  but  he  was  continually  yielding  to 
his  taste  for  drink  and  the  use  of  opium.  His  young  wife 
was  desperately  ill,  his  own  health  failed,  and  the  whole 

i  A  prominent  early  editor  and  anthologist,  and  Poe's  literary  executor. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group        259 

family,  including  Mrs.  Clemm,  his  mother-in-law,  was  for  a 
time  dependent  upon  public  charity. 

Poe's  last  days.  In  1847  his  young  wife  died.  From  this 
time  on  to  the  end  of  his  life,  Poe  seems  to  have  been  a  broken 
hearted  and  hopeless  man.  Once  or  twice  he  made  a  real 
effort  to  throw  off  the  terrible  gloom  and  the  distressing 
habits  which  had  gained  such  a  grip  on  him.  His  genius  had 
not  yet  been  exhausted,  for  he  produced  in  these  last  years 
some  of  his  most  exquisite  lyric  poems,  such  as  "Ulalume," 
"The  Bells,"  and  "Annabel  Lee."  He  was  unable  to  make 
a  living,  however.  He  tried  to  earn  something  by  lecturing, 
but  he  failed  to  attract  an  audience  in  New  York.  He 
then  went  South,  and  here  he  met  with  more  success.  At 
Richmond  his  friends  rallied  to  his  support,  and  in  a  benefit 
lecture  he  realized  about  fifteen  hundred  dollars.  He  in 
tended  to  return  to  New  York,  where  Mrs.  Clemm  was 
anxiously  waiting  to  hear  from  him  and  learn  his  plans,  but 
he  never  reached  that  city.  Mystery  hangs  about  his  last 
days.  No  one  knows  what  happened  to  him  after  he  left 
Richmond  on  September  30,  1849.  When  his  friends  found 
him  three  days  later,  he  was  lying  unconscious  in  a  saloon 
which  had  been  used  as  one  of  the  ward  polling  places  in 
a  city  election  at  Baltimore.  The  physician  who  attended 
him,  and  had  him  taken  to  Washington  Hospital,  testified 
that  Poe  was  not  drunk  but  drugged.  The  theory  now 
generally  accepted  is  that  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  corrupt 
electioneering  gang,  was  drugged  and  robbed,  and  then 
carried  around  from  polling  place  to  polling  place  and  made 
to  vote  under  false  names.  On  Sunday  morning,  October 
7,  1849,  the  ill-starred  poet  passed  quietly  away. 

Estimate  of  Poe 's  character.  Such  was  the  life  of  the 
most  erratic  and  most  unfortunate  of  all  American  men  of 
letters.  There  are  those  who  condemn  Poe  as  an  ingrate, 
a  degenerate,  a  reprobate;  but  those  more  charitably  in 
clined  consider  him  an  unfortunate  son  of  genius  who  was 


260  History  of  American  Literature 

unable,  from  his  very  nature,  to  control  his  actions.  That 
he  was  unreliable,  erratic,  intemperate,  his  most  ardent 
admirers  will  not  deny.  That  he  was  dishonest,  immoral, 
or  licentious,  his  enemies  will  hesitate  to  affirm.  That  he 
was  his  own  worst  enemy,  all  will  readily  admit.  His  life 
is  one  to  ''point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale." 

Classification  of  Poe's  works.  Poe's  literary  output 
clearly  falls  under  three  important  headings,—  namely, 
(i)  his  literary  criticism,  (2)  his  poetry,  and  (3)  his  short 
stories. 

Poe  as  a  critic.  Poe  is  far  .and  away  the  most  important 
American  literary  critic  of  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Of  course  much  of  his  criticism  is  ephemeral, 
being  made  up  for  the  most  part  of  hastily  written  book 
reviews  and  general  editorial  and  journalistic  work  con 
tributed  under  pressure  to  the  various  magazines  with  which 
he  was  connected.  He  had  a  very  keen  critical  sense  and 
very  definite  critical  principles,  however,  and  on  various 
occasions  in  set  essays  or  lectures  he  enunciated  these 
principles  in  such  form  as  to  make  them  of  permanent 
value.  For  example,  in  writing  a  review  of  Hawthorne's 
Twice-Told  Tales  in  1842,  he  set  forth  very  succinctly  his 
theory  of  the  short  story,  and  his  ideas  have  proved  of  such 
importance  as  to  make  this  review  a  locus  classicus  in  the 
criticism  of  this  popular  form  of  modern  literary  art. 

A  skilful  literary  artist  has  constructed  a  tale.  If  wise,  he  has  not 
fashioned  his  thoughts  to  accommodate  his  incidents;  but  having 
conceived,  with  deliberate  care,  a  certain  unique  or  single  effect  to  be 
wrought  out,  he  then  invents  such  incidents  —  he  then  combines  such 
events  as  may  best  aid  him  in  establishing  this  preconceived  effect. 
If  his  very  initial  sentence  tend  not  to  the  outbringing  of  this  effect, 
then  he  has  failed  in  his  first  step.  In  the  whole  composition 'there 
should  be  no  words  written,  of  which  the  tendency,  direct  or  indirect, 
is  not  to  the  one  pre-established  design. 

In  his  lecture  on  "The  Poetic  Principle"  and  in  his  essay 
entitled  "The  Philosophy  of  Composition,"  Poe  has  similarly 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group        261 

expounded  his  theories  on  the  composition  of  poetry.  He 
asserted  that  to  produce  the  proper  emotional  effect  a  poem 
should  not  be  primarily  didactic  or  moral  in  aim,  that  is, 
its  main  aim  should  not  be  to  teach  a  lesson  or  inculcate  a 
moral;  and  it  should  not  be  unduly  long  or  unduly  brief. 
A  long  poem,  he  contended,  is  a  contradiction  of  terms,  for 
if  the  emotional  tension  is  continued  beyond  a  certain  point 
it  becomes  painful  rather  than  pleasurable,  and  thus  the 
whole  aim  of  poetry,  which,  according  to  Poe,  is  to  give 
pleasure  through  the  rhythmical  creation  of  beauty,  would 
be  completely  vitiated  or  destroyed.  Similarly  if  a  poem  is 
so  condensed  as  to  become  epigrammatic  or  too  highly 
intellectualized,  it  precludes  the  pleasurable  emotion  which 
is  essential  to  the  poetic  mood.  He  also  held  that  sadness 
is  an  essential  element  in  the  highest  poetic  beauty  and  that 
the  death  of  a  beautiful  woman  is  the  most  poetical  of  all 
themes.  In  "The  Philosophy  of  Composition"  Poe  pro 
fesses  to  explain  in  detail,  by  way  of  example,  his  own  method 
of  procedure  in  composing  ''The  Raven,"  his  most  popular 
poem.  Poe's  theories  of  poetry  are  not  to  be  accepted  abso 
lutely,  because  they  are  too  narrow  and  confined  in  their 
point  of  view  to  be  applied  universally.  In  all  fairness, 
however,  it  must  be  admitted  that  in  his  own  compositions 
Poe  succeeded  admirably  in  vindicating  his  theories. 

Poe's  poetry.  There  are  many  critics,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  who  esteem  Poe  as  the  greatest  poetical  genius  pro 
duced  in  America.  Unquestionably  his  lyrics  possess  a 
peculiarly  haunting,  mysterious,  illusive,  romantic  beauty. 
Unquestionably,  also,  his  poetry  is  unique  and  original  in 
tone,  subject-matter,  and  conception.  Though  he  was 
strongly  influenced  by  Byron,  Hood,  Coleridge,  Shelley,  and 
Tennyson  among  English  poets,  he  disdained  mere  servile 
imitation,  and  he  now  and  again  essayed  to  invent  an 
entirely  new  rhythmic  form,  as  in  the  case  of  the  original 
stanza  employed  in  "The  Raven."  Poe's  theories  of  poetry, 


262  History  of  American  Literature 

as  explained  above,  were  apparently  made  to  fit  his. own 
practice.  He  wrote  no  poetry  of  a  strictly  epic  character, 
he  was  not  successful  in  his  attempts  at  dramatic  poetry, 
nor  did  he  write  any  very  long  poems.  But  in  the  briefer 
lyric  forms  he  admirably  fulfilled  his  own  theories.  His 
best  poems  are  literally  "the  rhythmic  creation  of  beauty." 
They  are  rich  in  musical  effects,  brought  about  by  the  use 
of  alliteration,  onomatopoeia,  double  and  frequently  repeated 
rimes,  the  refrain,  or  the  repetend,  and  other  musical  devices. 
He  is  particularly  happy  in  the  invention  and  adaptation 
of  proper  names  of  a  highly  musical  quality,  such,  for  exam 
ple,  as  Lenore,  Eulalie,  Annabel  Lee,  Ulalume,  Ligeia, 
Israfel,  Al  Aaraaf,  Auber,  Yaanek.  In  his  poetry  as  also 
in  his  prose  tales  he  often  strikes  the  solemn  and  lugubrious 
note  of  death,  mystery,  and  the  tomb,  and  the  plaintive 
tone  of  unfulfilled  desire  and  aspiration.  He  has  filled  his 
pages  with  wistful,  mystical,  ethereal  figures,  like  flitting 
spirits  from  another  world.  A  veil  of  romantic  imagination 
is  draped  over  all  that  he  wrote,  and  his  most  characteristic 
productions  are  tinged  with  a  quality  of  weirdness,  melan 
choly,  and  unsatisfied  longing  thoroughly  in  harmony  with 
his  conception  of  what  the  highest  poetry  should  be.  Among 
his  best  poems  for  young  readers  to  study  in  order  to  discover 
for  themselves  these  qualities  are  "The  Raven,"  "The 
Bells,"  "Eldorado,"  "Annabel  Lee,"  "To  Helen,"  "Israfel," 
"The  Haunted  Palace,"  "The  Sleeper,"  "The  City  in  the 
Sea,"  "The  Coliseum." 

Classification  of  Poe's  short  stories.  Poe's  most  distinc 
tive  service  to  our  literature  is  the  work  he  did  in  developing 
and  standardizing  the  short  story  as  a  distinct  literary  form. 
He  not  only  laid  down  the  strict  canons  for  the  structure  of 
the  modern  short  story,  but  he  showed  conclusively  in  his 
own  practice  the  soundness  and  correctness  of  these  canons. 
He  was  not  the  first  of  American  short-story  writers,  for 
Irving  and  Hawthorne  preceded  him  in  the  writing  of  excellent 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         263 

short  narratives  which  must  be  admitted  into  -the  modern 
art  form  known  as  the  short  story.  But  he  certainly  was 
the  first  to  conceive  the  essential  elements  of  this  type  of 
literary  art,  and  he  left  the  stamp  of  his  own  genius  so  dis 
tinctly  upon  it  that  his  influence  has  been  far  greater  than 
that  of  either  of  his  distinguished  predecessors.  Of  the 
many  classifications  of  Poe's  stories,  perhaps  the  simplest 
and  most  easily  remembered  is  the  one  which  groups  them 
into  two  principal  classes  and  one  subordinate  class:  (i) 
the  analytical  stories,  or  as  he  himself  -called  them,  the 
stories  of  ratiocination,  including  the  strictly  analytical 
stories  like  "The  Gold  Bug"  and  the  detective  stories,  and 
the  less  important  pseudo-scientific  stories  dealing  with 
curious  natural  phenomena;  and  (2)  the  stories  of  horror 
and  kindred  emotions,  in  which  resort  is  constantly  made 
by  Poe  to  themes  of  mystery,  death,  the  supernatural,  the 
fantastic,  the  weird,  the  uncanny.  To  these  two  principal 
classes  may  be  added  a  third  much  inferior  type  of  miscel 
laneous  stories,  including  the  minor  sketches,  such  as  "The 
Domain  of  Arnheim,"  "The  Man  of  the  Crowd";  the 
attempts  at  whimsical  humor,  such  as  "Loss  of  Breath," 
"The  Devil  in  the  Belfry,"  "X-ing  a  Paragrab";  and  the 
pure  allegories,  "Silence"  and  "Shadow." 

Poe's  analytical  stories.  To  the  first  group  belong  the 
cryptogrammatic  or  puzzle  stories,  of  which  "The  Gold 
Bug"  is  typical.  Poe  had  a  wonderful  analytic  faculty,  and 
he  was  exceedingly  fond  of  working  out  cryptograms  and 
puzzles  and  unraveling  situations  of  mystery.  He  once 
dumfounded  Charles  Dickens  by  minutely  forecasting  the 
solution  of  the  mystery  of  Barnaby  Rudge  long  before  the 
novel  was  completed.  In  applying  his  analytical  faculty 
to  the  unraveling  of  famous  murder  mysteries  and  the  like, 
Poe  may  be  said  to  have  invented  the  modern  detective 
story.  "The  Murders  in  the  Rue  Morgue,"  "The  Mystery 
of  Marie  Roget,"  and  "The  Purloined  Letter"  are  his  great 


264  History  of  American  Literature 

detective  stories.  M.  Dupin,  the  famous  French  detective 
who  applied  with  marvelous  precision  the  simple  laws  of 
deductive  logic  to  the  solving  of  apparently  baffling  mys 
teries,  has  become  the  model  for  later  writers  of  detective 
stories.  Sir  A.  Conan  Doyle,  the  English  writer,  has  con 
fessed  his  indebtedness  to  Poe  in  the  creation  of  his  own 
famous  detective,  Sherlock  Holmes.  Poe's  stories  of  mys 
tery  are  usually  more  attractive  to  young  readers  than  his 
more  artistic  stories  of  horror.  "The  Gold  Bug"  is  perhaps 
the  prime  favorite  of  all.  To  this  group  may  be  added  the 
realistic  pseudo-scientific  stories  of  strange  natural  phenom 
ena,  such  as  "The  Unparalleled  Adventure  of  one  Hans 
Pfaall,"  describing  with  Defoe-like  plausibility  a  trip  to  the 
moon;  "Narrative  of  A.  Gordon  Pym,"  Poe's  longest  story; 
and  "A  Descent  into  the  Maelstrom."  This  last  might 
readily  be  classed  among  the  tales  of  fear  or  horror,  but  its 
chief  interest  seems  to  center  in  the  realistic  presentation  of 
the  laws  of  suction  as  exhibited  in  the  huge  whirlpool. 

Poe's  tales  of  horror.  The  second  class  contains  Poe's 
most  artistic  work,  for  he  was  at  his  best  in  portraying  the 
emotions  of  horror,  fear,  revenge,  remorse  of  conscience,  and 
the  like.  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher"  is  usually 
selected  by  critics  as  the  supreme  example  of  Poe's  art  in 
the  short-story  form.  In  this  story  Poe  exemplified  his  own 
theories  almost  perfectly.  He  settled  at  once  upon  the 
"preconceived  unique  effect"  of  the  peculiar  type  of  horror 
produced  by  premature  burial  arid  sudden  death.  The 
dominant  tone  is  struck  in  the  initial  sentence.  The  setting- 
is  one  of  gloom  and  mystery.  The  characters  are  obsessed 
with  uncanny  visions  of  trances,  premature  .burials,  and 
ghost-like  resurrections  from  the  grave.  The  storm  without 
is  but  a  lugubrious  accompaniment  to  the  strange  phan 
tasms  of  the  diseased  minds  within.  The  lurid  tarn,  the 
miasmatic  effluvia,  and  finally  the  blood-red  moon  are  fit 
accessories  to  the  scene.  Every  sound,  every  color,  every 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        265 

motion,  every  article  of  furniture,  even  the  very  atmosphere 
of  the  old  mansion  breathes  of  dankness  and  decay  and 
death.  The  uncanny  musical  improvisations  of  Roderick 
Usher,  his  allegorical  poem  of  "The  Haunted  Palace,"  the 
strange  tale  he  is  reading,  the  mysterious  trance-death  of 
his  wraith-like  sister  Madeline,  all  conspire  to  enhance  the 
wildly  imaginative  scene  of  the  catastrophe.  No  sensitive 
person  can  read  this  tale  without  shuddering  and  trembling 
with  fear.  Scarcely  inferior  to  "The  Fall  of  the  House  of 
Usher"  in  artistic  power  are  "The  Cask  of  Amontillado,"  a 
story  of  revenge;  "  Ligeia,"  a  mystical  story  of  the  reincarna 
tion  of  a  beautiful  woman  after  death,  claimed  by  Poe  to 
be  his  most  perfect  story;  "The  Pit  and  the  Pendulum," 
a  story  of  the  horrors  of  the  medieval  inquisition;  "The 
Masque  of  the  Red  Death,"  a  fantasia  of  death  produced  by 
a  most  repulsive  disease;  "William  Wilson,"  a  story  dealing 
with  the  two  natures  in  man,  a  theme  which  later  attracted 
Robert  Louis  Stevenson  in  his  powerful  story  "Dr.  Jekyll 
and  Mr.  Hyde."  In  tales  like  "The  Black  Cat"  and  "The 
Tell-tale  Heart,"  though  these  are  extremely  fascinating  to 
readers  who  delight  in  "thrillers,"  Poe  has  somewhat  im 
paired  the  artistic  effect  by  overdoing  the  horror  motive. 
All  in  all,  however,  his  horror  stories  are  his  most  original 
contribution  to  American  literature.1 

Henry  Timrod.  Time  has  dealt  both  harshly  and  kindly 
with  Henry  Timrod  (1829-1867).  During  his  life  this 
young  South  Carolinian  suffered  perhaps  more  than  any  one 
of  his  long-suffering  fellow  poets  of  the  Civil  War  and  Recon 
struction  periods,  but  gradually  his  fame  has  expanded  until 
now  he  is  universally  recognized  as  one  of  the  four  or  five 
major  poets  of  the  South,  being  placed  second  only  to  Lanier 
and  Poe.  His  work  at  times  undoubtedly  reaches  a  higher 


1The  authoritative  biography  of  Poe  is  that  by  George  E.  Woodberry, 
published  in  two  volumes  in  1909.  An  excellent  brief  treatment  with  a 
full  bibliography  by  Dr.  Killis  Campbell  may  be  found  in  The  Cambridge 
History  of  American  Literature,  Vol.  II,  1918. 

18 


266  History  of  American  Literature 

level  than  that  of  his  lifelong  friend,  Paul  Hamilton  Hayne, 
and  the  actual  product  of  his  thirty-seven  years  of  ill-starred , 
poverty-stricken,  disease-haunted  life,  though  but  a  mere 
indication  of  what  he  might  have  accomplished  under  more 
favorable  circumstances,  yet  gives  him  the  right  to  an  hon 
orable  place  among  the  song-crowned  sons  of  America. 

Timrod  and  Hayne.  Like  Paul  Hayne,  Henry  Timrod 
came  of  an  excellent  family,  who  in  Revolutionary  times  had 
settled  in  the  aristocratic  and  cultured  city  of  Charleston, 
South  Carolina.  There  was  less  than  a  month's  difference 
between  the  birthdays  of  the  two  poets,  Timrod  being  born 
on  December  8,  1829,  and  Hayne  on  January  i,  1830.  The 
boys  became  friends  while  attending  the  same  private 
school  in  Charleston.  They  sat  together  for  a  time  at  the 
same  desk  and  thus  became  intimate  cronies. 

Timrod's  education.  Although  Timrod  is  described  as  a 
shy  and  timid  youth,  slow  of  speech  but  quick  to  learn,  he 
was  a  thoroughly  likable  lad,  and  was  a  general  favorite 
among  his  playmates.  He  took  an  active  part  in  all  out 
door  sports  and  games,  even  in  fighting,  and  he  was  fond  of 
getting  away  from  the  city  to  take  long  rambles  in  the  woods. 
When  he  was  about  seventeen  years  old,  Timrod  entered 
the  University  of  Georgia  with  bright  prospects.  He  made 
a  fairly  good  record  as  a  student,  especially  in  the  classics 
and  other  literary  branches,  and  he  spent  much  of  his  time 
in  verse-making.  His  education  was  cut  short  through  lack 
of  means,  however,  and  he  left  college  without  a  degree. 
This  was  the  first  great  disappointment  of  his  life. 

Efforts  to  earn  a  livelihood.  Returning  to  Charleston,  he 
entered  the  office  of  the  Honorable  J.  L.  Petigru,  one  of  the 
best-known  lawyers  of  the  city,  to  prepare  for  a  professional 
career;  but  he  soon  found  law  work  distasteful  and  his  pre 
ceptor  uncongenial,  and  so  he  went  out  to  earn  his  livelihood 
by  tutoring  in  private  families.  Aspiring  to  a  professorship 
in  the  classics,  Timrod  read  diligently  to  prepare  himself  for 


From  a  portrait  in  the  possession  of  the  Charleston 
Library  Society.     Courtesy  of  the  trustees 

HENRY  TIMROD 


268  History  of  American  Literature 

this  work.  But  he  was  born  under  an  unlucky  star,  it  seems, 
for  he  was  always  approaching  very  near  to,  but  never  quite 
realizing,  his  most  cherished  desires.  He  found  no  suitable 
opening  for  a  successful  teaching  career,  and  so  for  about 
ten  years  he  toiled  on  at  private  tutoring  here  and  there, 
wherever  he  found  work. 

Timrod's  early  poems.  All  this  time  poetry  was  his  con 
stant  companion  and  consolation.  He  contributed  both 
prose  and  verse  to  Southern  literary  journals,  such  as  Russell's 
Magazine  and  The  Southern  Literary  Messenger.  He  pub 
lished  a  small  volume  of  poems  in  1860,  and  as  Hayne  said, 
1 '  a  better  first  volume  of  the  kind  has  seldom  appeared  any 
where.  "  In  this  volume  were  "The  Lily  Confidante, "  " A 
Vision  of  Poesy,"  and  other  worthy  efforts.  The  book  was 
well  received  by  the  reviewers,  but  there  could  not  have 
been  in  the  whole  history  of  our  country,  perhaps,  a  more 
unpropitious  moment  for  the  publication  of  a  volume  of 
purely  nature  and  personal  lyrics.  The  people  were  in  no 
mood  to  read  love  songs  or  disquisitions  on  the  technique  of 
poetry.  Again  we  find  disappointment  and  failure  Timrod's 
portion,  for  there  were  few  buyers  of  his  modest  volume,  and 
consequently  no  material  returns  to  the  young  author. 

Timrod's  war  poetry.  But  hope  smiled  anew,  and  Tim- 
rod  threw  himself  with  intense  zeal  into  the  approaching 
struggle  between  the  sections.  He  was  too  frail  physically 
to  bear  arms  or  undergo  the  hardships  of  military  life,  but 
he  went  to  the  front  as  war  correspondent  for  The  Charleston 
Mercury,  and  was  continually  helping  the  Southern  cause  by 
composing  the  fiery  war  songs  which  gave  him  such  wide 
fame  in  those  years  of  struggle  and  which  won  for  him  a 
place  in  the  foremost  rank  of  Southern  war  poets.  His 
"  Ethnogenesis, "  written  in  February,  1861,  on  the  birth  of 
the  Southern  confederacy  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  is  a 
magnificent  ode,  and  except  for  the  fact  that  it  celebrates  a 
"lost  cause"  there  is  no  doubt  that  long  ago  it  would  have 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group        269 

been  recognized  as  one  of  our  best  productions  in  this  kind 
of  poetry.  By  far  the  best-known  and  most  highly  praised 
of  Timrod's  longer  poems,  "The  Cotton  Boll,"  was  written 
about  the  same  time.  Though  more  strictly  a  nature  poem, 
it  concludes  with  a  strong  patriotic  appeal,  and  is  sometimes 
classed  as  a  war  poem.  His  "Carolina"  and  "A  Cry  to 
Arms"  are  stirring  war  songs.  These  poems,  and  many 
others  like  them,  were  widely  circulated  and  enthusiastically 
received  all  over  the  South.  So  prominent  had  Timrod 
become  as  a  representative  Southern  poet  that  in  1862  his 
friends  proposed  to  bring  out  an  illustrated  edition  of  his 
poems  in  England,  the  artist  Vizetelli,  then  war  correspon 
dent  of  The  London  Illustrated  News,  promising  to  supply 
the  engravings.  But  in  the  stress  of  the  war  period  the 
project  fell  through,  and  again,  on  the  very  threshold  of 
success,  our  poet  met  his  old  foes,  misfortune  and  dis 
appointment. 

His  marriage:  "Katie."  Early  in  1864  Timrod  accepted 
an  editorial  position  on  The  South  Carolinian  of  Columbia, 
South  Carolina,  and  with  the  prospect  for  permanent 
employment  he  married  Miss  Kate  Goodwin,  an  English 
girl.  This  lady  was  the  ideal  of  many  of  his  poetic  fancies 
and  the  inspiration  of  some  of  his  best  love  poems.  The 
long  poem  "Katie,"  which  celebrates  the  beauty  and  charm 
of  Miss  Goodwin,  is  full  of  exquisite  imagery  and  fine  de 
scriptive  passages. 

Effects  of  the  War  on  Timrod.  Little  more  than  a  year 
of  happiness  was  vouchsafed  him.  On  December  24,  1864, 
was  born  to  him  a  son,  the  "Little  Willie"  whom  he  mourns 
in  a  pathetic  lyric  in  less  than  a  year  after  the  child's  birth. 
After  the  death  of  his  son  the  poet  lost  much  of  his  hopeful 
ness  and  buoyancy.  General  Sherman's  army  had  destroyed 
the  beautiful  city  of  Columbia  almost  exactly  one  year  after 
the  date  of  Timrod's  marriage,  and  there  was  nothing  left 
to  him  but  poverty  and  distress  from  that  time  on  to  the 


270  History  of  American  Literature 

end  of  his  life.  He  tried  to  bear  up  bravely.  In  a  letter 
to  his  friend  Hayne  in  1866  he  humorously  refers  to  the 
gradual  sale  of  the  little  furniture  and  silverware  that  had 
been  saved  from  the  wreck,  to  meet  the  bare  necessities 
of  existence:  "We  have  —  let  me  see  —  yes,  we  have  eaten 
two  silver  pitchers,  one  or  two  dozen  silver  forks,  several 
sofas,  innumerable  chairs,  and  a  huge  bedstead."  He 
continued  his  work  on  The  Carolinian, —  the  paper  had  now 
been  moved  to  Charleston,  —  but  in  a  letter  to  Hayne  he 
stated  that  for  four  months  he  had  not  received  a  dollar 
of  his  promised  salary. 

Timrod's  visit  to  Hayne.  0ne  brief  respite  came  before 
the  end,  when  in  the  summer  of  1867  Timrod,  by  the  advice 
of  his  physicians  and  at  the  urgent  solicitation  of  his  old 
friend,  went  for  two  visits  of  about  one  month  each  to  "Copse 
Hill,"  the  home  of  Paul  Hamilton  Hayne,  who  was  now 
living  in  the  pine  barrens  of  Georgia  about  sixteen  miles 
from  Augusta.  Hayne  writes  sympathetically  of  their 
comradeship  during  these  visits,  both  in  his  introductory 
memoir  in  the  1873  edition  of  Timrod's  poems  and  in  his 
beautiful  reminiscences  of  the  poet  in  "Under  the  Pine" 
and  ."By  the  Grave  of  Henry  Timrod."  From  this  visit, 
though  greatly  revived  in  spirits  and  apparently  in  health 
also,  Timrod  returned  home  to  die.  On  September  13, 
he  wrote  to* Hayne  that  he  had  suffered  a  severe  hemorrhage 
from  the  lungs,  and  this  was  speedily  followed  by  others, 
still  more  severe.  He  died  October  7,  1867. 

Timrod's  most  perfect  lyric.  Timrod's  swan  song,  the 
"Ode"  written  to  be  sung  at  the  memorial  service  for  the 
Confederate  dead  in  Magnolia  Cemetery  in  1867,  is  the 
most  perfect  of  all  his  poems.  In  its  classic  restraint  and 
finished  beauty  of  style  and  in  its  subdued  and  pathetic 
expression  of  grief,  it  has  rarely  been  equaled  in  American 
lyric  poetry.  The  last  stanza  may  be  quoted  as  a  memorial 
of  Timrod's  own  life. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        271 

Stoop,  angels,  hither  from  the  skies ! 

There  is  no  holier  spot  of  ground 
Than  where  defeated  valor  lies, 

By  mourning  beauty  crowned! 

Paul  Hamilton  Hayne.  Paul  Hamilton  Hayne  (1830- 
1886),  a  nephew  of  the  distinguished  statesman  and  orator 
Robert  Young  Hayne,  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Caro 
lina,  on  New  Year's  Day,  in  1830.  His  father,  Lieutenant 
Paul  Hamilton  Hayne  of  the  United  States  Navy,  died 
when  Paul  was  a  mere  infant,  and  the  boy  was  brought  up 
amid  the  wealth  and  luxury  of  his  uncle's  home..  He 
received  careful  training  in  the  best  schools  of  Charleston, 
and  he  later  entered  Charleston  College,  from  which  he  was 
graduated  in  1850. 

Hayne'' 's  editorial  work:  his  early  volumes  of  poems.  Like 
many  young  Southerners  of  good  family,  Hayne  prepared 
himself  for  the  bar,  but  the  call  of  poetry  was  stronger  than 
that  of  the  law.  He  became  an  associate  editor  of  The 
Southern  Literary  Messenger,  and  later  co-founder  and  editor 
of  Russell's  Magazine,  which  he  made  a  decided  success. 
He  published  a  volume  of  poems  in  1855,  and  three  other 
volumes  followed — Sonnets  and  Other  Poems  (1857),  Avolio 
and  Other  .Poems  (1860),  Legends  and  Lyrics  (1872),  and  a 
complete  edition  of  his  poems,  arranged  by  himself  and 
published  with  an  introductory  biographical  sketch  by  his 
friend  and  fellow  poet,  Margaret  J.  Preston,  about  four 
years  before  his  death  on  July  6,  1886. 

Hayne's  experiences  during  the  War.  The  Civil  War 
came  on  just  in  time  to  interfere  seriously  with  the  develop 
ment  of  his  genius  and  the  spread  of  his  fame.  True,  he 
threw  himself  whole-heartedly  into  the  struggle,  writing  a 
number  of  good  war  poems;  but  his  muse  was  better  suited 
to  the  home,  the  winter  fireside,  and  the  summer  forest 
retreat  than  to  the  battle-field,  the  march,  and  the  camp. 
In  spite  of  his  delicate  constitution  and  frail  physique  he 


272  History  of  American  Literature 

volunteered  his  services  to  the  Confederate  cause,  becoming 
an  aide  on  Governor  Pickens's  staff. 

His  life  at  "Copse  Hill."  Home,  library,  wealth,  all  were 
swept  away  by  the  war.  When  peace  came,  Hayne  moved 
with  his  devoted  wife  and  only  son,  William  Hamilton  (who 
is  himself  a  poet  of  no  mean  ability),  into  the  pine  barrens 
of  Georgia,  and  settled  in  a  little  cottage — or,  rather,  log 
cabin — near  Augusta.  In  this  primitive  home,  which  he 
named  "  Copse  Hill,"  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
striving  to  build  up  his  health,  and  devoting  himself  exclu 
sively  to  literature  for  a  livelihood.  His  poems  and  prose 
articles  found  a  ready  reception  in  the  magazines  and 
periodicals  of  the  North  as  well  as  in  those  of  the  South, 
but  the  remuneration  was  small  and  the  family  was  forced 
to  live  under  the  severest  economy. 

Value  of  Hayne 's  work.  Hayne's  lyric  genius  has  been 
highly  praised,  but  he  is  still  little  more  than  a  name  to 
many  readers,  North  and  South.  He  wrote  a  large  amount 
of  poetry  of  a  singularly  uniform  excellence,  but  no  single 
poem  so  far  superior  to  the  great  mass  of  his  work  as  to 
make  itself  particularly  noteworthy.  Poets  of  far  less 
literary  merit  are  more  generally  known,  through  some 
single  popular  work,  while  Hayne,  for  the  very  reason  of 
his  uniform  excellence,  is  neglected.  He  was  not  strikingly 
original  in  his  poetry,  but  he  had  an  individual  note,  and 
his  art  was  rarely  at  fault.  He  deserves  a  more  generous 
and  general  recognition  than  he  has  received.  His  longer 
narrative  poems  and  his  dramatic  pieces  are  not  without 
merit,  but  his  best  work  is  undoubtedly  in  the  purer  lyric 
and  descriptive  types.  Especially  praiseworthy  are  his 
sonnets,  of  which  he  wrote  considerably  more  than  one 
hundred.  Maurice  Thompson  said,  "As  a  sonneteer, 
Hayne  was  strong,  ranking  well  with  the  best  in  America"; 
and  again,  "I  can  pick  twenty  of  Hayne's  sonnets  to  equal 
almost  any  in  the  language";  and  Professor  Painter  adds, 


From  a  photograph.     Courtesy  of  the  poet's  son, 
William  HamiltoH  Hayne 


PAUL  HAMILTON   HAYNE 


274  History  of  American  Literature 

"It  is  hardly  too  much  to  claim  that  Hayne  is  the  prince  of 
American  sonneteers." 

His  life  a  poem.  Paul  Hamilton  Hayne  lived  as  he 
wrote  —  simply,  purely,  bravely.  The  latter  part  of  his 
life  was  marked  by  struggle  and  heartache,  privation  and 
disease;  yet  he  kept  up  his  courage  and  maintained  a  calm, 
sweet  temper  to  the  end,  making  of  his  own  life,  perhaps, 
a  more  beautiful  poem  than  any  he  ever  penned.1 

Sidney  Lanier.  In  one  of  his  earlier  poems,  called  "Life 
and  Song,"  Sidney  Lanier  (1842-1881)  says  that  none  of 
the  poets  has  ever  yet  so  perfectly  united  the  ideal  of  his 
minstrelsy  with  the  reality  of  his  daily  life  as  to  cause  the 
world  in  wonder  to  exclaim: 

"His  song  was  only  living  aloud, 
His  work,  a  singing  with  his  hand!" 

But  so  nearly  did  Lanier  himself  come  to  a  realization^  of  his 
ideal  of  "a  perfect  life  in  perfect  labor  writ,"  that  the  ever 
growing  circle  of  his  admirers  is  ready  to  place  him  among 
that  very  small  number  of  the  gifted  sons  of  genius  who 
have  nobly  conceived  and  nobly  striven  toward  the  ideal. 
Outwardly  his  life  was  a  hard  one.  The  story  of  his  struggle 
against  poverty,  disease,  and  adversity  often  has  been  told, 
but  not  too  often,  for  it  is  as  inspiring  as  it  is  pathetic.  It 
is  the  old,  old  story  of  genius  making  its  way  in  spite  of  all 
obstructions. 

Lanier 's  early  life:  his  musical  gifts.  Sidney  Lanier  was 
born  at  Macon,  Georgia,  February  3,  1842.  His  father, 
Robert  S.  Lanier,  was  a  fairly  successful  lawyer  who  was 
able  to  keep  his  family  in  that  moderate  degree  of  comfort 
which  seems  conducive  to  the  highest  happiness  in  home 
life.  The  house  in  which  Sidney  was  born  was  the  home 
at  that  time  of  his  grandfather,  Sterling  Lanier,  and  when 


i Perhaps  the  best  essays  on  Hayne  are  those  by  Margaret  Junkin  Preston 
in  the  latest  edition  of  his  poems  [1882]  and  by  William  Hamilton  Hayne 
in  Lippincott's  Magazine  for  December,  1892. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group          275 


SIDNEY   LANIER 


this  first  grandson  was  a  few  months  old,  his  parents  moved 
to  Griffin,  Georgia,  returning  to  Macon  a  year  or  two  later. 
Here  their  parlor  was  later  the  scene  of  many  a  hospitable 
gathering  of  friends  and  neighbors  for  impromptu  family 
musical  entertainments.  The  two  boys,  as  well  as  the 
mother,  were  talented  in  music,  and  each  contributed  to 


276  History  of  American  Literature 

the  home  concerts.  The  Laniers  had  in  previous  generations 
been  distinguished  for  their  attainments  in  various  kinds 
of  artistic  expression,  particularly  in  painting  and  in  music. 
Sidney  early  showed  his  remarkable  musical  talent,  becoming 
a  performer  on  almost  all  kinds  of  instruments  at  an  early 
age,  learning  with  that  ease  and  rapidity  which  come  only 
from  natural  genius.  He  was  so  fascinated  by  the  music 
of  the  violin  that  he  would  sometimes  fall  into  deep  reveries 
or  trances  as  he  played.  His  father, .  fearing  the  power  of 
the  instrument  over  the  boy  and  not  wishing  him  to  become 
a  professional  musician,  forbade  him  to  practice  on  it ; 
and  Sidney  turned  to  the  instrument  which  after  the  violin 
most  appealed  to  him,  the  flute.  On  this  he  produced 
marvelous  effects,  not  only  fascinating  his  schoolmates  at 
Oglethorpe  College  and  his  fellow  soldiers  during  the  Civil 
War  by  his  wonderful  mastery  of  this  instrument,  but  later 
earning  as  a  professional  the  distinction  of  being  the  greatest 
flute-player  in  the  world.  The  sweetness,  mellowness,  and 
passionate  appeal  of  the  tones  of  his  flute  are  said  to  have 
held  all  hearers  spellbound.  He  could  imitate  bird  notes 
with  ease,  and  was  also  able  to  obtain  in  his  extemporized 
variations  and  embellishments  tones  suggestive  of  those  of 
the  violin. 

His  call  to  be  a  writer.  But  later  on  we  find  the  conviction 
taking  possession  of  Lanier  that  he  must  be  a  poet.  He 
writes  to  his  father,  "Gradually  I  find  that  my  whole  soul 
is  merging  itself  into  this  business  of  writing."  He  had 
begun  while  at  college  to  test  his  powers  as  a  writer.  He 
was  ambitious  to  prepare  himself  by  study  in  Germany  for 
a  college  professorship,  but  the  war  came  on,  and  like  many 
another  talented  young  Southerner,  he  threw  himself  with 
great  enthusiasm  into  the  cause  of  the  Confederacy.  He 
entered  the  army  as  a  private,  and  rather  than  accept 
promotion  which  would  separate  him  from  his  brother 
Clifford,  he  remained  such.  Near  the  close  of  the  war 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        277 

when  both  he  and  Clifford  were  put  in  charge  of  blockade- 
running  vessels,  Sidney  was  captured  and  confined  for  five 
months  in  the  Federal  prison  at  Point  Lookout.  During 
the  war,  Lanier  did  not  neglect  his  mental  development. 
He  read  all  the  books  he  could  lay  hands  on,  studied  German, 
translated  a  few  poems  from  foreign  languages,  and  played 
on  his  beloved  flute  whenever  he  had  an  opportunity  to  do 
so.  He  began  work  on  a  novel  in  which  he  made  use  of 
some  of  the  experiences  and  aspirations  of  this  period. 
This  immature  production  was  published  shortly  after  the 
war,  under  the  title  of  Tiger  Lilies. 

Teaching  and  writing  poetry.  Returning  home  from  prison 
just  in  time  to  see  his  mother  before  her  death,  he  sadly 
set  to  work  to  make  a  living  for  himself  and  thus  to  help 
retrieve  the  broken  fortunes  of  the  family.  He  began  teach 
ing  as  a  tutor  on  a  plantation  near  Macon,  and  then  he 
became  a  clerk  in  the  old  Exchange  Hotel  at  Montgomery, 
Alabama.  In  1867  he  accepted  the  principalship  of  the 
village  school  at  Prattville,  Alabama,  and  it  was  while  he 
was  occupying  this  position  that  he  married  Miss  Mary  Day, 
of  Macon,  Georgia.  During  the  first  year  of  his  married 
life  Lanier  suffered  his  first  prostration  from  hemorrhage  of 
the  lungs.  To  this  distressful  period  belong  several  Recon 
struction  outcries,  of  which  only  two,  "Tyranny"  and  "The 
Raven  Days,"  were  included  in  the  1884  edition  of  his 
poems,  but  several  others,  notably  "Our  Hills,"  are  included 
in  the  latest  edition  of  his  complete  Poems  (1916).  Some 
years  later  the  rich  emotions  incident  to  his  love,  courtship, 
and  marriage  blossomed  forth  into  many  beautiful  tributes 
to  the  object  of  his  lifelong  devotion.  No  more  exquisite 
love  poem,  no  finer  tribute  to  a  wife,  is  to  be  found  in  our 
literature  than  "My  Springs." 

Lanier  as  a  lawyer:  his  letters.  After  his  marriage,  Lanier 
decided  to  become  a  lawyer  in  order  to  be  able  to  provide 
more  adequately  for  his  family.  He  went  to  Macon  to  study 


278  History  of  American  Literature 

with  the  firm  of  which  his  father  was  a  member,  and  he  was 
shortly  afterwards  admitted  to  the  bar.  Though  his  success 
was  remarkable  and  immediate,  he  did  not  practice  long,  for 
the  demands  of  the  legal  profession  were  destructive  of  his 
now  feeble  vitality,  a  public  address  being  likely  to  induce 
hemorrhage,  and  prolonged  desk  work  a  steady  lowering  of 
his  strength  at  all  points.  And  yet  he  felt  chained  by  moral 
obligation  to  consent  to  his  father's  urgent  plea  that  he 
continue  in  his  law  work  for  the  sake  of  his  family's  support. 
At  last,  after  five  years  of  painful  sacrifice,  disease  freed 
him  to  devote  himself  to  his  beloved  arts,  music  and  poetry. 
He  said  he  had  in  his  heart  a  thousand  songs  that  were 
oppressing  him  because  they  remained  unsung.  Relin 
quishing  his  law  practice,  he  sought  health  by  rest  and  travel. 
He  spent  some  time  in  San  Antonio,  Texas,  in  the  winter  of 
1872,  and  here  he  made  the  first  notable  public  display  of 
his  remarkable  talent  for  flute  playing.  He  wrote  some  for 
publication,  but  the  best  products  of  this  period  are  his 
tender  love  letters  to  his  wife.  In  fact,  Lanier  was  one  of 
the  finest  letter  writers  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
charm  and  fullness  with  which  the  poet  sxpressed  himself 
by  means  of  the  delicate  art  of  personal  correspondence  have 
rarely  been  equaled  and  never  surpassed  in  American 
literature. 

Lanier  as  a  musician.  The  next  year  he  decided  to  go  to 
the  North  or  East,  where  he  could  find  encouragement  and 
opportunity  to  devote  himself  to  the  twin  arts  of  music  and 
poetry.  He  was  engaged  as  first  flute  in  the  Peabody  Sym 
phony  Concerts  in  Baltimore.  His  ability  as  a  musician 
was  soon  recognized.  He  was  not  merely  a  virtuoso,  but  a 
composer  and  master  of  the  science  of  music.  And  so  with 
flute  and  pen  as  the  means  by  which  he  earned  a  scanty 
livelihood,  he  spent  the  remaining  nine  years  of  his  life  in 
the  musical  and  scholarly  atmosphere  of  Baltimore  and  other 
cities.  He  soon  made  warm  friends  of  many  notable  persons, 


280  History  of  American  Literature 

such  as  Bayard  Taylor,  Charlotte  Cushman,  Gibson  Peacock 
of  Philadelphia,  Leopold  Damrosch,  President  Oilman,  and 
others.  Again  he  was  under  the  necessity  of  being  separated 
from  his  family ;  but  while  these  enforced  periods  of  separa 
tion  were  extremely  painful  to  the  poet  and  his  wife,  the 
general  public  may  count  them  fortunate,  in  that  they  were 
the  occasion  for  some  of  the  most  beautiful  of  his  letters  on 
music  and  kindred  arts. 

His  poems  of  1876-77.  The  later  years  of  the  poet's 
life,  while  consciously  devoted  to  art,  were  a  struggle 
against  poverty  and  disease.  In  the  summer  of  1876-77  his 
health  became  so  greatly  impaired  that  his  physicians  and 
friends  prevailed  on  him  to  go  to  Tampa,  Florida,  to  recu 
perate.  In  the  leisure  of  this  visit  Lanier  produced  many 
notable  poems,  among  them  being  "Tampa  Robins," 
"Beethoven,"  "The  Waving  of  the  Corn,"  "The  Song  of 
the  Chattahoochee,"  "The  Stirrup  Cup,"  "An  Evening 
Song,"  "The  Mocking-Bird."  On  his  return  to  Baltimore 
in  the  spring,  he  tried  to  find  some  employment  to  supple 
ment  the  meager  income  from  his  position  in  the  Peabody 
Symphony  Orchestra.  But  all  his  efforts  and  those  of  his 
friends  seemed  of  no  avail.  It  was  at  this  time  that  what 
Professor  Mims  calls  "perhaps  the  most  pathetic  words  in 
all  his  letters"  were  written  by  the  poet:  "Altogether,  it 
seems  as  if  there  wasn't  any  place  for  me  in  the  world,  and 
if  it  were  not  for  May  [his  wife]  I  should  certainly  quit  it, 
in  mortification  at  being  so  useless." 

Lanier Js  lectures  on  literature.  Finally  a  friend  hit  upon 
the  idea  of  organizing  a  private  class  for  a  series  of  lectures 
on  English  poetry.  Lanier  had  been  taking  every  advantage 
of  the  excellent  libraries  and  opportunities  for  culture  in 
Baltimore,  and  he  had  developed  rapidly  under  the  inspira 
tion  of  the  literary  and  artistic  life  of  that  city.  He  was 
reading  deeply  into  the  Old  and  Middle  English  and  the 
Elizabethan  writers.  His  sympathetic  interpretations 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group        281 

attracted  a  goodly  number  of  students  to  his  first  class,  and 
the  success  of  these  private  lectures  soon  gave  him  an  oppor 
tunity  to  present  the  results  of  his  investigations  in  a  regular 
series  of  lectures  in  Johns  Hopkins  University.  It  was  in 
1879  that  President  Oilman  appointed  him  to  a  lectureship 
in  English  literature.  Many  years  later  Lanier's  son,  Henry 
Wysham  Lanier,  collected  the  lectures  and  published  them 
in  two  large  volumes  under  the  title  of  Shakspere  and  His 
Forerunners  (1902). 

Lanier's  prose  works.  During  all  this  time  Lanier  was 
turning  out  many  excellent  works,  both  creative  and  edi 
torial.  His  Boy's  Froissart,  Boy's  King  Arthur,  Boy's  Percy, 
Boy's  Mabinogion  are  still  standard  juvenile  books.  He 
was  gradually  working  out  in  concrete  examples  of  poetic 
composition  his  theories  of  the  interrelationship  of  music 
and  poetry.  He  published  two  critical  volumes,  The 
Science  of  English  Verse  and  The  English  Novel  and  its 
Development.  In  the  first  he  set  forth  the  interrelations  of 
music  and  poetry,  and  in  the  second  he  proclaimed  the 
novel  as  the  most  characteristic  form  of  modern  literary 
art  and  George  Eliot  its  most  prominent  exponent. 

His  best  poems.  Lanier's  theory  of  the  close  relationship 
between  music  and  poetry  was  well  nigh  justified  in  such  of 
his  own  poems  as  "The  Symphony,"  "The  Ballad  of  Trees 
and  the  Master,"  "Psalm  of  the  West,"  "The  Song  of  the 
Chattahoochee,"  "The  Marshes  of  Glynn,"  and  "Sunrise." 
"Sunrise"  and  "The  Marshes  of  Glynn,"  two  of  the  four 
completed  "hymns  of  the  marshes,"  a  distinctly  original 
series  of  poems  projected  by  Lanier  on  the  beautiful  salt 
sea-marshes  near  Brunswick,  Georgia,  are  usually  designated 
as  Lanier's  supreme  attainment  in  lyrical  poetry.  The  first 
of  these  contains  some  magnificent  lines  and  some  wonderful 
melody,  but  it  is  perhaps  written  in  a  too  tense  and  ecstatic 
mood  to  be  thoroughly  artistic.  Of  "The  Marshes  of 
Glynn"  Professor  Edwin  Mims  says  that  one  could  single 
19 


282  History  of  American  Literature 

it  out  ' '  with  assurance  that  there  is  something  so  individual 
and  original  about  it,  and  that,  at  the  same  time,  there  is 
such  a  roll  and  range  of  verse  in  it,  that  it  will  surely  live 
not  only  in  American  poetry  but  in  English." 

Lanier' s  last  days.  In  1880  Lanier  faithfully  filled  his 
engagements  at  the  university,  but  it  is  said  that  his  hearers 
were  in  constant  dread  lest  each  hour  should  be  his  last. 
It  was  only  by  the  conquering  power  of  his  will  that  he  kept 
himself  alive  at  all.  He  rode  to  the  hall  in  a  closed  carriage, 
and  sat  during  the  hour,  being  unable  to  stand  to  deliver 
his  lectures.  In  1881  he  sought  relief  in  the  mountains  near 
Asheville  in  North  Carolina.  His  father  and  his  brother 
Clifford  were  with  him  for  several  weeks,  but  only  his  wife 
was  there  when  the  end  came.  William  Hayes  Ward,  in 
his  memorial  essay,  which  is  attached  as  introduction  to 
the  volume  of  Lanier 's  Poems,  quotes  Mrs.  Lanier 's  own 
words:  "We  are  left  alone  with  one  another.  On  the  last 
night  of  the  summer  comes  a  change.  His  love  and  immortal 
will  hold  off  the  destroyer  of  our  summer  yet  one  more  week, 
until  the  forenoon  of  September  yth,  and  then  falls  the  frost, 
and  that  unfaltering  will  renders  its  supreme  submission  to 
the  adored  will  of  God."  He  was  buried  in  Greenmount 
Cemetery  in  Baltimore,  the  beloved  city  of  his  adoption.1 

MINOR    SOUTHERN    POETS 

The  ante-bellum  minor  poets.  Poe  is  the  only  early 
Southerner  who  would  receive  unanimous  suffrage  as  a  major 
American  poet.  But  in  the  ante-bellum  period,  beginning 
with  Francis  Scott  Key  (1780-1843),  of  Maryland,  whose 
fame  rests  upon  the  fact  that  he  wrote  during  the  War  of 
1812  what  has  since  become  our  national  anthem,  "The 
Star-Spangled  Banner,"  the  South  produced  a  large  number 

1  The  most  satisfactory  life  of  Lanier  is  that  by  Edwin  Mims.  Other 
noteworthy  studies  are  those  by  Professor  Morgan  Callaway,  Jr.,  in  his 
Select  Poems  of  Sidney  Lanier,  and  by  Henry  Nelson  Snyder  in  his  The 
Spiritual  Message  of  Lanier. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         283 

of  minor  poets.  Some  of  them  have  thrown  off  single 
lyrics  of  admirable  grace  and  sweetness,  others  have  poured 
forth  volumes  of  mediocre  poetry  of  merely  local  interest 
or  sectional  pride,  and  still  others  have  produced  a  consider 
able  amount  of  poetry  worthy  of  general  national  attention. 
Among  the  single-poem  class  of  ante-bellum  Southern  poets 
may  be  named  Richard  Henry  Wilde  (178 9- 1847),  of  Georgia, 
whose  beautiful  lyric,  "My  Life  is  Like  the  Summer  Rose," 
is  included  in  practically  every  American  anthology ;  William 
Gilmore  Simms  (1806-1870),  of  South  Carolina,  better 
known  as  a  novelist,  but  remembered  also  for  a  few  of  his 
many  poems,  and  particularly  for  his  poetical  characteriza 
tion  of  General  Francis  Marion  in  "The  Swamp  Fox"; 
Alexander  Beaufort  Meek  (1814-1865),  born  in  South 
Carolina  but  associated  almost  entirely  with  Alabama, 
author  of  the  stirring  patriotic  lyric  "Land  of  the  South" 
and  two  excellent  bird  lyrics,  "The  Mocking-Bird"  and 
"Song  of  the  Blue  Bird";  Theodore  O'Hara  (1820-1867), 
of  Kentucky,  whose  "The  Bivouac  of  the  Dead"  is  recog 
nized  among  the  noblest  of  our  elegies  or  dirges;  Edward 
Coate  Pinkney  (1802-1828),  of  Maryland,  whose  lyric, 
"A  Health,"  called  forth  the  highest  praise  from  Poe  and  is 
still  greatly  admired  by  all  lovers  of  musical  verse;  Philip 
Pendleton  Cooke  (1816-1850),  brother  of  the  novelist,  John 
Esten  Cooke,  of  Virginia,  whose  "Florence  Vane"  is  but 
one  of  several  excellent  lyrics  in  his  volume  called  Froissart 
Ballads  and  Other  Poems  (1847). 

Civil  War  poets.  Besides  Henry  Timrod,  who  is  treated 
elsewhere  in  this  volume,  the  South  produced  a  number  of 
other  war  poets.  Albert  Pike  (1809-1891),  born  in  Boston  but 
for  fifty  years  of  his  life  identified  with  the  South,  particu 
larly  Arkansas,  wrote  a  great  deal  of  poetry,  most  of  it  of 
an  imitative  classic  quality.  His  "Ode  to  the  Mocking- 
Bird,"  his  fiery  war  song  "Dixie"  (not  the  swift,  rollicking 
dialect  words  usually  sung  to  the  well-known  air),  and  his 


284  History  of  American  Literature 

melancholy  lyric  called  "Every  Year"  may  be  read  as 
examples  of  his  best  lyric  productions.  Dr.  Francis  Orray 
Ticknor  (1822-1874)  is  remembered  chiefly  as  the  author 
of  the  stirring  lyric  of  heroism,  "  Little  Giffen,"  which  has 
been  named  among  the  half  dozen  best  short  poems  in 
American  literature.  The  natural  and  spontaneous  poetry 
of  this  good  physician,  whose  home  near  Columbus,  Georgia, 
was  known  as  a  refuge  for  the  sick  and  wounded  Confederate 
soldiers  during  the  Civil  War,  should  have  long  ago  received 
fuller  recognition  from  our  literary  historians.  James 
Ryder  Randall  (1839-1908),  of  Maryland,  sang  himself 
into  fame  with  the  fervent  war  lyric,  "Maryland,  My 
Maryland!"  which  has  been  called  "The  Marseillaise  of  the 
Confederacy."  Margaret  Junkin  Preston  (1820-1897)  was 
born  in  Pennsylvania,  but  married  Colonel  J.  T.  L.  Preston, 
of  the  Virginia  Military  Institute,  Lexington,  Virginia, 
and  devoted  her  entire  life  and  talents  to  the  Southern 
cause.  She  wrote  a  large  amount  of  narrative  and  lyric 
verse.  Her  best  work  was  a  number  of  lyrics  commemo 
rative  of  Southern  war  heroes,  such  as  "Gone  Forward" 
and  "The  Shade  of  the  Trees,"  commemorating  the  deaths 
of  Generals  Lee  and  Jackson  respectively.  John  Reuben 
Thompson  (1823-1873),  of  Virginia,  who  was  for  fourteen 
years  editor  of  the  most  important  literary  journal  of  the 
South,  The  Southern  Literary  Messenger,  is  chiefly  remem 
bered  for  his  war  lyrics,  among  which  may  be  singled  out 
"Music  in  Camp,"  "Ashby,"  and  "The  Death  of  Stuart." 
Abram  Joseph  Ryan  (1839-1886),  better  known  from  his 
priestly  office  as  Father  Ryan,  is  the  best  beloved  of  all 
the  Southern  Civil  War  poets.  He  was  born  in  Virginia* 
but  lived  in  several  Southern  states,  his  longest  residence 
in  any  one  place  being  at  Mobile,  Alabama,  in  connection 
with  the  noted  old  Catholic  church  of  St.  Mary's  in  that 
city.  His  best  known  lyrics  are  "The  Sword  of  Lee," 
"The  Mystic,"  and  "The  Conquered  Banner."  He  also 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        285 


ABRAM  JOSEPH  RYAN 


From  a  photograph 


wrote  a  long  narrative  poem  in  blank  verse,  which,  though 
not  of  the  very  highest  poetical  merit,  has  a  pathetic 
personal  interest.  It  is  called  "Their  Story  Runneth  Thus, " 


286  History  of  American  Literature 

a  story  of  self-renunciation  and  sacrifice,  full  of  Roman 
Catholic  coloring,  and  supposed  to  be  based  on  the  poet's 
own  personal  experience  in  renouncing  his  early  love  for  a 
beautiful  girl,  who  afterwards,  upon  his  advice,  became  a 
nun.  Father  Ryan's  verse  is  the  simple  and  natural  out-" 
pouring  of  a  pure  and  loyal  soul,  and  it  touches  the  hearts 
of  many  readers  who  would  not  be  moved  by  work  of  a 
more  finished  literary  art. 

Post-bellum  poets.  Sidney  Lanier  and  Paul  Hamilton 
Hayne  are  treated  elsewhere  at  more  length.  The  minor 
Southern  singers  that  have  appeared  since  the  Civil  War 
are  quite  too  numerous  to  be  spoken  of  in  detail.  Irwin 
Russell  and  Madison  Cawein,  however,  are  distinctive 
enough  to  demand  special  mention;  a  few  of  the  other  later 
poets  may  be  treated  more  briefly. 

Irwin  Russell.  The  story  of  Irwin  Russell  (1853-1879), 
"the  boy  poet  of  Mississippi,"  is  a  pathetic  one  and  may 
easily  be  used  to  "point  a  moral  or  adorn  a  tale. "  He  was 
born  in  Port  Gibson,  Mississippi,  where  his  father  was  a 
practicing  physician.  At  the  age  of  three  months  the  child 
suffered  a  severe  attack  of  yellow  fever,  and  it  is  thought  that 
his  frail  constitution  in  after  life  was  the  result  of  this  early 
infection.  He  was  sent  to  the  schools  of  St.  Louis,  Missouri, 
after  which  he  returned  to  Mississippi  and  prepared  himself 
for  the  bar,  being  admitted  to  the  practice  by  a  special  act 
of  the  Mississippi  legislature  two  years  before  he  reached 
his  majority.  His  mental  acuteness  was  remarkable.  He 
was  also  talented  in  music,  being  able  to  play  on  several 
instruments  with  ease.  His  fondness  for  the  banjo  led,  by 
a  happy  accident,  to  his  composition  or  improvization  of 
negro  songs  similar  to  those  he  heard  the  servants  singing 
around  his  father's  home.  Many  of  these  humorous  negro 
songs  were  afterward  published  in  Scribner's  Monthly, 
beginning  in  1876.  This  was  an  entirely  new  type  of  writ 
ing,  and  it  at  once  attracted  other  writers  into  the  same  field. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group        287 

Joel  Chandler  Harris  and  Thomas  Nelson  Page  have  both 
acknowledged  their  indebtedness  to  and  their  appreciation 


Courtesy  of  Professor  A.  A.  Kern 
IRWIN  RUSSELL 

of  the  art  of  Russell  in  negro  dialect.  The  young  writer 
was  attracted  to  New  York  City  to  continue  his  literary 
activities.  In  the  meantime  he  had  lost  his  father,  and  he 
was  now  practically  alone  and  adrift  in  the  world.  -  Yielding 
to  his  desire  for  the  use  of  drugs  and  intoxicants,  he  soon 
broke  down  in  health.  He  fell  into  a  serious  illness  and  was 
impelled  by  remorse  to  leave  New  York,  where  his  new 


288  History  of  American  Literature 

friends  were  charitably  taking  care  of  him.  He  worked  his 
way  down  to  New  Orleans  on  a  coast  steamer,  and  tried  to 
recover  his  health  by  abstinence  and  thus  reinstate  himself 
in  the  profession  of  journalism,  becoming  for  a  time  a 
reporter  on  the  New  Orleans  Picayune.  But  Fate  was  against 
him ;  he  died,  leaving  his  promise  of  greater  work  unfulfilled. 

Russell's  dialect  poems.  The  whole  output  of  Russell's 
genius  makes  up  but  a  thin  volume  of  verse.  His  most 
notable  single  production  in  negro  dialect  is  the  operetta 
called  ' '  Christmas  Night  in  the  Quarters.  "  "In  this  produc 
tion, "  says  Joel  Chandler  Harris  in  his  introduction  of  the 
volume  published  after  Russell's  death,  "Russell  combines 
the  features  of  a  character  study  with  a  series  of  bold  and 
striking  plantation  pictures  that  have  never  been  surpassed. 
In  this  remarkable  group, — if  I  may  so  term  it, — the  old 
life  before  the  war  is  reproduced  with  a  fidelity  that  is 
marvelous."  "The  Song  of  the  Banjo,"  a  lyric  in  this 
operetta,  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  Russell's  poems, 
but  "Nebuchadnezzar,"  "Mahsr  John,"  "Business  in 
Mississippi,"  and  many  others  are  equally  amusing. 

Madison  Cawein.  Madison  Julius  Cawein  (1865-1914), 
of  Kentucky,  the  most  prolific  and  all  in  all  the  most  sensu 
ously  lyrical  of  recent  American  poets,  should  be  more 
widely  known  than  he  is  at  present.  He  published  during 
his  life  an  enormous  amount  of  verse,  issuing  some  twenty- 
odd  original  books  of  poetry  besides  a  volume  of  selected 
poems.  He  found  his  subjects  largely  in  his  minute  observa 
tions  of  Nature  and  in  his  romantic  treatment  of  the  outdoor 
world.  Naturally  in  the  large  number  of  poems  which  he 
published  there  will  be  found  many  trivial  themes  and  some 
artificial  conceits.  But  taken  at  his  best,  Cawein  deserves 
the  high  praise  which  William  Dean  Howells  and  other 
critics  have  accorded  him.  He  has. been  called  "the  Keats 
of  Kentucky,"  and  his  enthusiastic  delight  in  nature  and 
his  love  for  foreign  and  native  myths  give  point  to  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group         289 

comparison.  Cawein  wrote  too  much,  however,  and  his 
lack  of  restraint  and  of  severe  self-criticism  has  doubtless 
injured  his  fame.  Nevertheless,  it  is  believed  that  he  will 
be  remembered  as  one  of  the  most  truly  gifted  of  American 
nature  lyrists. 

Other  lyrists.  John  Bannister  Tabb  (1845-1909),  of 
Virginia,  was  just  old  enough  to  enter  the  Confederate  Army 
toward  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was  associated  with 
Sidney  Lanier  as  a  prisoner  of  war,  and  on  several  occasions 
he  voiced  his  appreciation  of  that  poet's  magnetic  and 
chivalrous  personality.  After  the  war  he  became  a  Roman 
Catholic  priest  and  devoted  himself  largely  to  teaching  in 
Catholic  schools.  He  wrote  many  brief  almost  epigram 
matic  lyrics,  all  of  them  being  decidedly  pleasing  and  satis 
fying  to  the  ear  as  well  as  stimulating  and  suggestive  to  the 
imagination.  Samuel  Minturn  Peck  (1854-),  of  Alabama, 
is  one  of  the  cleverest  of  all  our  writers  of  light  society  verse. 
His  lyrics  have  a  fascinating  lilt  and  a  charming  melody,  and 
are  at  the  same  time  interfused  with  a  spirit  of  cavalier 
gallantry,  quiet  humor,  and  an  amusing  touch  of  playful 
satire  and  badinage.  His  best  known  lyrics,  perhaps,  are 
"The  Grapevine  Swing,"  "Aunt  Jemima's  Quilt,"  "Grand 
mother's  Turkey-tail  Fan,"  "Doctor  Bessie  Brown,"  and 
"The  Southern  Girl."  Robert  Burns  Wilson  (1850-1916) 
and  Cale  Young  Rice  (1872-),  both  of  Kentucky,  have 
written  excellent  lyric  verse.  The  last-named  poet  is  just 
now  in  the  prime  of  his  life,  and  he  has  a  decidedly  promising 
future  before  him,  if  we  may  judge  by  the  quality  of  his 
already  published  poems  and  plays.  Judge  Walter  Malone 
(1866-1915),  although  born  in  Mississippi,  has  made  his  home 
almost  entirely  in  Memphis,  Tennessee,  and  is  recognized 
as  a  prominent  poet  of  his  adopted  state.  His  best  known, 
though  not  his  most  artistic,  poem  is  called  "Oppor 
tunity."  Frank  Lebby  Stanton  (1857-),  born  in  South 
Carolina,  but  usually  thought  of  as  a  Georgian  on  account 


290 "  PI  is  tor  y  of  American  Literature 

of  his  long  connection  with  The  Atlanta  Constitution,  is  a 
newspaper  poet  of  wide  popularity.  In  his  daily  column 
of  verse  and  humorous  skits  in  the  Constitution,  he  has 
inevitably  turned  out  many  mere  space  fillers;  but  there 
is  a  distinct  singing  quality  to  his  verse;  and  when  the 
best  of  his  songs  shall  have  been  selected  from  the  vast 
amount  he  has  produced,  there  will  be  a  considerable  volume 
of  worthy  poems  of  his  to  transmit  to  posterity.  Stark 
Young  (1881-),  of  Mississippi,  now  Professor  of  English 
literature  at  Amherst  College,  Massachusetts,  has  published 
some  finely  modulated  lyric  verse  in  his  volume,  The 
Blind  Man  at  the  Window  and  Other  Poems  (1906).  He 
has  also  written  a  poetic  drama,  "Guenevere,"  (1906), 
and  several  meritorious  one-act  plays  in  the  volume  Add-io, 
Mardretta,  and  Other  Plays  (1911).  William  Alexander 
Percy  (1885-),  is  an  equally  promising  Mississippi  poet. 
His  Sappho  in  Leukas  (1915)  shows  both  taste  and  power, 
and  we  may  confidently  expect  still  better  work  from  his 
pen.  Conrad  Potter  Aiken  (1889-),  of  Savannah,  Georgia, 
is  another  young  poet  of  talent.  His  three  volumes — 
Earth  Triumphant  (1914),  Nocturne  of  Remembered  Spring 
(1917),  and  The  Charnel  Rose  (1918) — contain  both 
narrative  and  lyric  verse  of  surprisingly  good  quality. 

SOUTHERN    WRITERS    OF    FICTION 

Introductory  statement.  Aside  from  Poe,  whose  impor 
tant  work  in  the  American  short  story  is  treated  else 
where,  the  writers  of  fiction  in  the  South  prior  to  the 
Civil  War  were  few  in  nuniber  and  of  little  importance. 
John  Pendleton  Kennedy,  William  Gilmore  Simms,  and 
John  Esten  Cooke  are  the  only  ante-bellum  Southerners 
who  deserve  attention  in  this  field  of  literature.  Since  the 
Civil  War,  however,  a  large  number  of  novelists  and  local- 
color  short-story  writers  have  sprung  up  in  the  South.  The 
following  list  of  names  will  indicate  the  importance  of  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         291 

Southern  group  among  our  popular  writers  of  fiction  during 
the  last  half  century:  Richard  Malcolm  Johnston,  F.  Hop- 
kinson  Smith,  Joel  Chandler  Harris,  George  Washington 
Cable,  James  Lane  Allen,  Charles  Egbert  Craddock, 
Thomas  Nelson  Page,  John  Fox,  Jr.,  Grace  King,  Ruth 
McEnery  Stuart,  Mary  Johnston,  Ellen  Glasgow,  Henry 
Sydnor  Harrison,  and  O.  Henry. 

John  Pendleton  Kennedy.  John  Pendleton  Kennedy' 
(1795-1870)  was  born  in  Baltimore,  and  educated  there  for 
the  bar.  He  later  became  Secretary  of  the  Navy  under 
President  Fillmore.  Literature  was  to  him,  as  to  all  South 
ern  gentlemen  of  his  time,  a  mere  side  issue  or  pastime. 
His  serious  work  was  in  law  and  politics,  but  he  found  time 
to  do  a  great  deal  of  literary  reading  and  to  write  three 
volumes  of  fiction.  His  first  book,  Swallow  Barn,  or  A 
Sojourn  in  the  Old  Dominion  (1832),  is  a  series  of  sketches 
held  together  by  a  slight  plot  element.  It  succeeds  admi 
rably  in  its  attempt  to  present  accurately  and  vividly  the 
early  social  life  of  Virginia.  Kennedy's  most  pretentious 
novel  is  Horse-shoe  Robinson,  or  A  Tale  of  the  Tory  Ascend 
ency  (1835).  The  setting  is  in  the  South  Carolina  of  the 
Revolution,  and  the  stirring  scenes  of  those  early  times  are 
portrayed  with  wonderful  naturalness  and  realism  if  not 
with  perfect  historic  accuracy.  The  hero,  an  unlettered  but 
valorous  and  resourceful  patriot,  is  one  of  the  really  notable 
character  creations  in  our  early  fiction.  The  scene  of 
another  historical  romance,  Rob  of  the  Bowl  (1838),  is  laid 
in  colonial  Maryland  during  the  days  of  the  proprietary 
government,  and  the  book  is  said  to  present  a  trust 
worthy  portrait  of  colonial  life.  Kennedy  was  one  of  the 
first  men  to  give  generous  encouragement  to  Poe,  and  he  had 
much  intercourse  and  correspondence  with  other  distin 
guished  literary  men  both  in  America  and  in  England.  His 
connection  with  Thackeray  is  particularly  interesting;  it  is 
claimed  that  he  wrote,  or  at  least  provided  the  material 


292  History  of  American  Literature 

for,  the  fourth  chapter  of  Thackeray's  novel,  The  Virginians. 
Had  he  devoted  himself  more  to  literature  and  less  to  law 
and  politics,  Kennedy  would  doubtless  have  attained  a  much 
higher  rank  among  American  writers  than  he  is  now  accorded. 
William  Gilmore  Simms.  Next  to  Poe,  William  Gilmore 
Simms  (1806-1870)  was  the  most  potent  literary  influence 
in  Southern  literature  in  the  period  immediately  preceding 
the  Civil  War.  He  was  born  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina, 
in  1806  and  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age.  He  managed 
to  prepare  himself  for  the  practice  of  law,  but  he  was  soon 
attracted  into  authorship,  beginning  as  a  newspaper  editor. 
He  gathered  around  him  at  Charleston  a  coterie  of  young 
writers  and  acted  as  a  kind  of  patron  or  literary  adviser  to 
them.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  these  were  the  poets 
Paul  Hamilton  Hayne  and  Henry  Timrod.  About  1833  he 
began  the  publication  of  his  long  series  of  romances,  Guy 
Rivers,  a  Tale  of  Georgia  (1834),  being  his  first  successful  long 
story.  This  was  quickly  followed  by  The  Yemassee,  a 
Romance  of  South  Carolina  (1835)  and  The  Partisan,  a  Tale 
of  the  Revolution  ( 1 83  5) ,  his  two  best  stories.  It  is  impossible 
here  to  follow  Simms  through  his  long  and  active  literary 
and  political  career.  He  was  a  loyal  and  enthusiastic 
Southerner,  and  espoused  with  almost  partisan  zeal  prac 
tically  every  important  social  and  political  movement  in 
which  his  section  became  involved.  He  was  a  prodigious 
composer,  writing  and  publishing  nearly  a  hundred  volumes 
in  the  various  kinds  or  types  of  literary  composition.  The 
plain  fact  is  that  he  wrote  too  much  and  too  rapidly  to  give 
his  work  that  polish  and  finish  of  style  which  is  essential  to 
literary  masterpieces.  He  had  a  marvelously  fertile  imagi 
nation  and  could  turn  out  an  enormous  amount  of  exciting 
romance  within  the  space  of  a  few  hours.  He  rarely  cor 
rected  or  revised  his  first  drafts,  and  hence  his  works  are 
full  of  the  usual  errors  due  to  haste  and  over-confidence. 
But  under  the  heat  of  his  fertile  imagination  he  could  write 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        293 

interesting,  if  somewhat  melodramatic,  narratives;  and 
his  conception  of  character,  his  descriptions  of  nature,  and 
his  presentations  of  intense  dramatic  situations  show  evi 
dences  of  strong  native  power  and  insight.  He  has  been 
called  the  "Cooper  of  the  South,"  and  his  Indian  stories, 
his  tales  of  adventure,  and  his  historical  romances  may  be 
compared  not  altogether  unfavorably  with  Cooper's  work 
in  these  fields. 

John  Esten  Cooke.  John  Esten  Cooke  (1830-1886),  "a 
Virginian  of  Virginians,"  won  his  reputation  as  a  romancer 
before  the  Civil  War,  but  he  may  also  be  classed  among  the 
post-bellum  writers,  for  he  wrote  many  popular  stories 
based  on  his  experiences  and  observations  of  that  memorable 
struggle.  He  did  not  take  a  college  education  as  did  his 
elder  brother,  the  poet  Philip  Pendleton  Cooke,  but  decided 
to  prepare  immediately  for  the  practice  of  law  in  his  father's 
office.  However,  he  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  general 
reading  and  literary  work.  In  1854  he  published  perhaps 
his  most  important  book,  The  Virginia  Comedians,  a  novel 
dealing  with  life  in  the. Old  Dominion  just  prior  to  the 
Revolution.  When  the  Civil  War  opened,  he  enlisted  as  a 
private  in  the  Confederate  Army  and  was  soon  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  major.  He  served  as  a  staff  officer  with 
Generals  Stuart  and  Pendleton,  and  thus  was  enabled  to 
come  into  personal  contact  with  a  number  of  the  leading 
Confederate  generals.  He  kept  full  notes  of  his  experiences, 
and  later  he  used  this  material  in  writing  his  stirring  romances 
of  the  Civil  War.  Even  during  the  war  Cooke  was  con 
stantly  writing.  He  published  in  1863,  less  than  a  year 
after  Jackson's  death,  a  biography  of  the  great  Southern 
general.  Surry  of  Eagle's  Nest  appeared  in  1866  and  won 
immediate  popularity  in  the  South,  and  is  still  frequently 
read  by  Southern  youths.  Then  followed  a  long  series  of 
tales  full  of  dramatic  adventure  and  highly  colored  war 
romance,  such  as  Mohun,  Hilt  to  Hilt,  Wearing  the  Gray, 


294  History  of  American  Literature 

Hammer  and  Rapier  (Grant  and  Lee).  These  later  works, 
chough  highly  entertaining  to  young  Southern  readers, 
cannot  be  classed  as  first-rate  literature.  The  straining 
after  exciting  incident  and  melodramatic  situation  and  the 
lack  of  proper  perspective  and  massing  are  the  chief  faults  of 
this  kind  of  fiction. 

Wide  geographical  distribution  of  later  fiction  writers. 
The  wide  geographical  distribution  of  the  later  Southern 
writers  of  fiction  indicates  the  relative  importance  of  the 
element  of  localism  in  their  work.  Nearly  every  state  and 
nearly  every  type  of  life  in  the  South  has  had  its  exploiter 
in  fiction.  Beginning  with  the  Atlantic  coast  and  moving 
westward,  we  may  take  a  rapid  glance  over  the  field  and 
at  the  same  time  preserve  something  of  a  chronological 
sequence. 

F.  Hopkinson  Smith.  Francis  Hopkinson  Smith  (1838- 
1915)  was  born  in  Maryland,  but  he  moved  to  New  York  to 
find  work  and  later  became  quite  a  traveler,  and  his  work 
deals  almost  as  largely  with  New  England  as  with  the  South. 
He  seems,  too,  to  belong  to  the  very  latest  school  of  writers 
of  fiction,  for  he  did  not  begin  to  write  stories  until  he  was 
past  fifty.  He  spent  a  busy  life  as  a  constructive  engineer, 
a  painter,  a  lecturer,  and  a  writer.  •  In  Colonel  Carter  of 
Carter  smile  (1891)  he  succeeded  in  drawing  a  charming  por 
trait  of  an  old-time  Southern  gentleman.  So  delicately 
humorous,  vividly  realistic,  and  thoroughly  human  is  this 
idealized  portrait  that  one  is  almost  willing  to  place  Colonel 
Carter  among  the  few  great  character  creations  in  our 
literature.  Smith's  later  novels,  which  may  be  classed  as 
realistic  romances,  are  written  in  an  optimistic  and  pleasing 
style.  Caleb  West,  Master  Diver  (1898),  which  draws  upon 
Smith's  experience  as  a  constructive  engineer  in  marine 
work,  The  Fortunes  of  Oliver  Horn  (1902),  Kennedy  Square 
(1911),  and  Felix  O'Day  (1915)  may  be  mentioned  as  the 
best  of  his  numerous  other  novels.  Smith  was  also  a 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         295 

painter  of  considerable  talent,  and  a  number  of  his  later 
books  are  illustrated  with  his  own  drawings  and  sketches. 

Thomas  Nelson  Page.  In  recent  years  Virginia  has  been 
perhaps  the  most  fertile  Southern  state  in  the  production  of 
story  writers. '  Thomas  Nelson  Page  (1853-)  began  about 
1884  to  write  negro  dialect  stories  for  the  magazines,  "  Marse 
Chan"  being  the  first  of  these  to  attract  general  attention. 
In  Ole  Virginia  (1887)  is  the  title  of  his  first  volume.  It  is 
composed  almost  entirely  of  negro  dialect  stories,  and  the 
consensus  of  opinion  is  that  Page  has  never  surpassed,  if 
indeed  he  has  ever  again  quite  reached,  the  high  mark  of 
artistic  excellence  which  he  set  in  these  idealized  portraits 
of  the  old-time  Southern  master  and  slave.  Besides  "Marse 
Chan,"  prime  favorites  in  this  first  volume  are  "Meh.  Lady," 
"Ole  'Stracted,"  and  "Unc'  Edinburg's  Drowndin."  "Two 
Little  Confederates"  and  "The  Burial  of  the  Guns"  (1894) 
are  two  good  Civil  War  short  stories  accredited  to  Page. 
Elsket  (1892)  is  a  romantic  story,  the  scene  of  which  is  laid 
in  Norway.  In  1898  Page  published  his  best  long  novel, 
Red  Rock,  a  Chronicle  of  Reconstruction.  It  is  a  gripping 
story  of  those  trying  days  in  the  South  when  the  Northern 
carpet-bagger  was  imposing  himself  upon  the  Southern  white 
people  and  inciting  the  negroes  to  open  opposition  to  their 
former  masters.  His  later  novels  are  somewhat  disappoint 
ing,  but  the  two  volumes  just  mentioned  are  classics  of  their 
kind  and  will  doubtless  long  retain  a  place  of  high  distinction 
in  the  list  of  the  best  American  fiction. 

Other  Virginia  story  writers.  Three  Virginia  women  have 
attracted  a  wide  circle  of  delighted  readers;  namely,  Molly 
Elliot  Seawell  (1860-1916),  author  of  Throckmorton  (1890), 
The  Sprightly  Romance  of  Mar  sac  (1896),  and  many  other 
novels;  Mary  Johnston  (1870-),  for  a  number  of  years  a 
resident  of  Alabama,  author  of  Prisoners  of  Hope  (1898), 
To  Have  and  To  Hold  (1899),  Audrey  (1902),  tales  of  Colonial 
Virginia;  Lewis  Rand  (1908),  a  tale  of  Virginia  in  the  early 


296  History  o]  American  Literature 

nineteenth  century;  and  The  Long  Roll  (1911)  and  Cease 
Firing  (1912),  Civil  War  stories  introducing  Generals  Jackson 
and  Lee  respectively,  besides  several  other  romances;  and 
Ellen  Glasgow  (1874-),  author  of  The  Voice  of  the  People 
(1900),  The  Battle  Ground  (1902),  The  Deliverance  (1904), 
and  other  novels.  In  the  past  ten  years  Henry  Sydnor 
Harrison  of  Richmond  has  won  popularity  by  his  interesting 
and  carefully  written  novels,  Queed  (1911),  V.  V.'s  Eyes 
(1913),  and  Angela's  Business  (1916).  He  seems  to  be  the 
most  promising  of  the  younger  Southern  novelists. 

Frances  Hodgson  Burnett.  Frances  Hodgson  Burnett 
(1849-),  though  born  in  Manchester,  England,  came  to 
America  when  she  was  sixteen,  lived  for  some  time  in 
Tennessee  and  other  Southern  states,  and  finally  in  Wash 
ington,  D.  C.,  so  that  she  may  be  classed  as  a  Southern 
writer.  Her  first  successful  novel,  That  Lass  o'  Lowries 
(1877),  deals  with  the  working  classes  in  England,  but  she 
wrote  many  stories  of  American  life,  such  as  Through  One 
Administration  (1883),  dealing  with  the  social  and  political 
life  in  Washington  City,  and  In  Connection  with  the  De  Wil- 
loughby  Claim  (1899),  the  scene  of  which  is  laid  in  Tennessee 
during  the  Civil  War.  The  best  known  of  all  Mrs.  Burnett's 
stories,  however,  is  the  juvenile  classic,  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy 
(1886).  The  long  golden  curls,  the  velvet  knickerbocker 
suit,  and  the  broad  white  collar  of  the  seven-year-old  boy 
hero  became  a  fad  and  furnished  a  model  for  many  a  fond 
American  mother.  The  tender  moral  tone  of  the  book  has 
also  helped  to  give  it  vogue  among  American  readers. 

Richard  Malcolm  Johnston.  Among  Georgia  writers  of 
fiction  Richard  Malcolm  Johnston  (1822-1898),  for  some 
years  prior  to  the  Civil  War  a  professor  of  English  in  the 
University  of  Georgia  and  afterward  principal  of  boarding 
schools  for  boys  in  Sparta,  Georgia,  and  in  Baltimore,  Mary 
land,  wrote  a  series  of  character  sketches  dealing  in  a  realistic 
and  humorous  fashion  with  Georgia  rural  types.  These 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group         297 

were  collected  and  published  in  several  volumes,  the  best 
known  being  Dukesborough  Tales,  or  Old  Times  in  Middle 
Georgia  (1871).  The  realism  and  accuracy  of  his  portrayals 
of  life  and  character  make  his  works  a  trustworthy  source 
for  the  study  of  social  conditions  in  the  South  during  the 
last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  the  lack  of  plot 
interest  and  the  absence  of  the  glamour  of  romance  have 
led  to  an  almost  total  neglect  of  these  books  by  modern 
readers.  Another  early  Georgia  writer,  Judge  Augustus 
Baldwin  Longstreet  (1790-1870),  wrote  a  similar  series  of 
excellent  realistic  sketches  and  published  them  in  a  volume 
called  Georgia  Scenes  (1835).  The  large  infusion  of  genuine 
humor  in  his  work  has  kept  it  alive  even  to  the  present  day. 

Joel  Chandler  Harris.  So  well  has  Joel  Chandler  Harris 
(1848-1908)  succeeded  in  exploiting  the  interesting  field  of 
negro  folklore  which  by  chance  he  stumbled  into,  and  also 
so  admirably  has  he  portrayed  other  phases  of  life  in  the 
South,  that  some  critics  are  ready  to  accord  him  a  place 
among  the  major  American  writers  of  recent  years.  By  his 
simple,  unassuming,  and  yet  thoroughly  artistic  style,  by 
his  keen  observations  of  man  and  nature,  by  the  richness 
and  sweetness  of  his  humor  and  pathos,  by  the  constantly 
sane  and  healthful  attitude  toward  life  which  he  maintained, 
and  also  by  his  powerful  and  apparently  almost  unconscious 
character  creation,  Harris  seems  destined  to  take  his  place 
among  the  distinctively  original  writers  that  America  has 
so  far  produced.  His  realm  was  a  restricted  one,  it  is  true, 
for  he  did  not  succeed  with  the  full-scope  novel;  but  he 
has  worked  his  own  particular  vein  with  such  painstaking 
and  loving  artistry  that  he  has  succeeded  in  adding  a  new 
domain  to  our  literature,  that  of  the  folktale  retold  in  artistic 
setting,  and  he  has  certainly  added  at  least  one  immortal 
portrait  to  our  gallery  of  notable  characters  in  fiction  — 
namely,  "Uncle  Remus." 

His  preparation.     Harris  was  born  near  Eatonton,  a  village 
20 


298  History  of  American  Literature 

in  Putnam  County,  Georgia.  He  obtained  an  elementary 
education  at  rural  schools  and  at  an  Eatonton  academy. 
When  he  was  fourteen,  Harris  became  an  assistant  printer 
on  a  journal  called  The  Countryman,  edited  by  J.  A.  Turner 
on  his  plantation  in  Putnam  County.  Here  the  boy  may  be 
said  to  have  completed  his  education  by  setting  type,  running 
the  press,  and  doing  the  general  work  around  the  printing 
office.  Mr.  Turner  encouraged  him,  allowed  him  free  use 
of  his  own  library,  and  eventually  accepted  contributions 
from  him.  But  the  best  part  of  young  Harris's  education 
was  gleaned  from  sources  outside  of  books.  He  studied 
closely  the  life  and  nature  about  him,  he  listened  to  the  old 
negroes  tell  their  fascinating  animal  tales,  and  he  absorbed 
the  language,  superstitions,  and  habits  of  his  colored  as  well 
as  his  white  neighbors.  In  a  book  called  On  the  'Plantation, 
written  many  years  later  and  dedicated  to  Mr.  Turner, 
Harris  has  woven  his  personal  experiences  into  a  wonderfully 
delightful  picture  of  this  old-time  life  on  a  Georgia  planta 
tion.  Then  came  Sherman's  army  marching  through 
Georgia,  and  the  old  life  was  a  closed  book.  Harris  later 
became  a  newspaper  man,  working  on  several  papers  and 
finally  settling  down  to  a  long  journalistic  career  on  The 
Atlanta  Constitution.  He  lived  a  quiet  and  retired  life  at 
his  home  called  "The  Wren's  Nest"  in  the  suburbs  of 
Atlanta,  rarely  appearing  in  any  public  capacity  other  than 
that  of  his  daily  editorial  contributions  to  the  Constitution. 
His  Uncle  Remus  stories.  It  was  while  he  was  serving 
as  a  reporter  on  the  Constitution  that  his  opportunity  came. 
One  of  the  regular  contributors  who  had  been  writing  negro 
dialect  sketches  for  the  paper  retired,  and  Harris  was  asked 
to  supply  the  deficiency  thus  created.  He  began  under  the 
nom-de-plume  of  "Uncle  Remus"  to  put  upon  paper  the 
stories  he  had  heard  in  his  youth  on  the  plantation.  These 
stories  were  later  collected  in  the  volume  called  Uncle 
Remus,  His  Songs  and  His  Sayings  (1881).  Three  other 


From  a  photograph  by  Francis  Benjamin  Johnston 
JOEL  CHANDLER  HARRIS 


300  History  of  American  Literature 

volumes  in  the  same  vein,  Nights  with  Uncle  Remus  (1883), 
Uncle  Remus  and  His  Friends  (1892),  and  Told  by  Uncle 
Remus  (1905),  have  been  almost  equally  popular;  and  as  a 
by-product,  of  the  interesting  animal  tales  in  these  four 
volumes,  the  character  of  Uncle  Remus  himself  has  emerged 
as  one  of  the  permanent  contributions  to  American,  if  not 
to  world,  fiction.  The  animal  characters  are  also  charm 
ingly  presented.  What  young  American  has  not  laughed 
at  the  pranks  of  Brer  Rabbit,  or  rejoiced  at  the  discom 
fiture  of  Brer  Fox,  or  delighted  in  the  antics  of  the  other 
wonderful  members  of  the  animal  company  which  Uncle 
Remus's  vivid  imagination  has  called  up  before  him?  The 
conversation  of  these  talking  beasts  is  so  natural  and  in 
such  perfect  keeping  with  their  characters  that  we  are 
unable  to  detect  a  single  false  note  or  offer  a  single  improve 
ment  upon  the  work  as  it  lies  before  us.  It  is  said  that 
Brer  Rabbit  represents  allegorically  the  weak  and  timid 
negro  among  his  stronger  white  neighbors,  represented  by 
Brer  Fox  and  the  other  animals,  and  since  he  is  deficient 
in  strength  he  has  to  resort  to  trickery  and  cunning  to  pro 
tect  himself.  In  this  view  there  is  a  delightful  vein  of  mild 
satire  discoverable  in  the  negro  folk  tales. 

Harris's  other  stories.  Joel  Chandler  Harris  wrote  many  ex 
cellent  stories  of  other  kinds,  as  in  Mingo  and  Other  Sketches 
in  Black  and  White  (1884),  Free  Joe  and  Other  Georgian 
Sketches  (1887),  Balaam  and  His  Master  and  Other  Sketches 
and  Stories  (1891),  which  are  largely  tales  of  the  negro 
in  connection  with  his  white  master;  The  Chronicles  of 
Aunt  Minervy  Ann  (1899),  a  well-nigh  successful  attempt 
to  create  a  negro  female  character  as  a  counterpart  to 
Uncle  Remus;  At  Teague  Poteet's  (1883),  a  story  of  the 
Georgia  mountaineers;  Tales  of  the  Home  Folks  in  Peace 
and  in  War  (1898),  and  On  the  Wing  of  Occasions  (1900), 
stories  of  various  types  of  middle  Georgia  life  at  home  and 
on  their  travels;  and  finally  Wally  Wander von  and  His 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group         301 

Story-Telling  Machine  (1903),  Little  Mr.  Thimblefinger  and 
His  Queer  Country  (1894),  and' its  sequel,  Mr.  Rabbit  at  Home 
(1895),  a  series  of  the  most  delightful  fairy  stories  yet 
written  in  America.  He  also  essayed  one  longer  novel, 
Gabriel  Tolliver,  a  Story  of  Reconstruction  (1902),  but  this 
is  not  so  successful  as  are  his  short  stories  and  tales. 

Louisiana  story  writers.  Louisiana  is  well  represented 
by  George  Washington  Cable  (1844-),  Grace  King  (1852-), 
and  Ruth  McEnery  Stuart  (1856-1917).  Miss  King  has  done 
some  distinctive  work  in  her  artistic  presentation  of  New 
Orleans  life,  her  best  stories  being  collected  in  the  volume 
called  Balcony  Stories  (1893).  Mrs.  Stuart  produced  good 
pathetic  and  humorous  negro  dialect  stories,  as  in  A  Golden 
Wedding  and  Other  Tales  (1893);  good  Southern  rural  life 
stories  as  in  her  In  Simpkinsville  (1897) ;  and  a  wonderfully 
charming  story  of  Arkansas  rural  life  in  Sonny  (1894), 
the  life  history  of  the  only  child  of  Deuteronomy  Jones,  a 
backwoods  Arkansas  farmer. 

George  Washington  Cable.  George  Washington  Cable 
(1844-)  deserves  fuller  treatment.  He  discovered  a  unique 
field  of  local  color  or  racial  characteristics  in  the  old  Creole 
life  in  Louisiana,  particularly  in  the  old  French  quarter  of 
early  nineteenth  century  New  Orleans.  His  volume  of 
tales,  Old  Creole  Days  (1879),  is  a  distinct  contribution  to  the 
American  local-color  or  regional  short  story.  Two  of  his 
best  long  novels,  The  Grandissimes  (1880)  and  Bonaventure, 
a  Prose  Pastoral  of  Acadian  Louisiana  (1888),  prove  Cable's 
ability  to  handle  a  larger  theme  in  an  artistic  and  satisfying 
way.  He  portrays  the  old  Creole  life  with  minute  accuracy, 
loving  sympathy,  artistic  insight  and  imagination.  In 
some  of  his  later  novels  he  has  turned  to  the  Reconstruc 
tion  and  Civil  War  periods,  as  in  John  March,  Southerner 
(1894)  and  The  Cavalier  (1901)  respectively,  but  he  is  not  so 
convincing  here  as  in  the  field  which  he  made  peculiarly 
his  own  in  his  earlier  fiction.  In  his  last  book,  The  Flower  of 


302  History  of  American  Literature 

the  Chapdelaines  (1918),  Cable  comes  again  to  the  old  Creole 
life  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  critics  of  the  volume  have  been 
almost  unanimous  in  their  verdict  that  the  novelist  has 
lost  none  of  his  original  charm  in  this  return  to  the  field  of 
his  first  inspiration. 

Charles  Egbert  Craddock.  The  Tennessee  mountaineer 
and  the  wild  seclusion  and  primitive  surroundings  of  his 
mountain  retreats  is  the  peculiar  realm  which  Charles 
Egbert  Craddock,  who  in  real  life  is  Mary  Noailles  Murfree 
(1850-),  has  found  for  the  exercise  of  her  literary  gifts. 
She  spent  much  of  her  time  in  intimate  study  of  the  scenes 
and  characters  which  she  portrays,  and  hence  her  descrip 
tions  glow  and  glisten  with  all  the  beauty  of  the  wild 
mountain  scenery,  and  her  presentation  of  the  peculiar  life, 
language,  and  social  customs  of  the  mountain  people  is 
convincing  and  realistic.  W.  M.  Baskervill  says  of  this 
author,  "Her  magic  wand  revealed  the  poetry  as  well  as  the 
pathos  in  the  hard,  narrow,  and  monotonous  life  of  the 
mountaineers,  and  touched  crag  and  stream  and  wood  and 
mountain  range  with  an  enduring  splendor."1  She  began 
her  career  in  the  early  seventies  by  writing  stories  of  the 
mountain  folk  for  the  magazines,  and  she  published  serially 
in  The  Atlantic  Monthly  almost  all  of  her  later  stories.  In 
1884  she  collected  her  first  volume  of  short  stories  under  the 
title,  In  the  Tennessee  Mountains,  and  since  that  time  Miss 
Murfree  has  published  more  than  a  dozen  novels  and  volumes 
of  short  stories,  most  of  them  dealing  in  one  way  or  another 
with  the  life  of  the  Tennessee  mountaineers.  Perhaps  her 
best  novels  are  The  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains 
(1885),  In  the  Clouds  (1887),  The  Despot  of  Broomsedge  Cove 
(1889),  and  The  Juggler  (1897). 

Other  Tennessee  story  writers.  Sarah  Barnwell  Elliott, 
'who  was  born  in  Georgia  and  lived  for  a  time  in  Texas,  but 
whose  home  has  been  for  a  good  many  years  in  Sewanee, 

i Southern  Writers,  Vol.  I. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Southern  Group         303 

Tennessee,  should  be  classed  with  Charles  Egbert  Craddock, 
inasmuch  as  she  deals  almost  exclusively  with  the  Tennessee 
mountaineers  in  her  stories.  She  is  the  author  of  numerous 
novels  dealing  with  moral  and  religious  problems,  not  in  the 
way  of  the  ordinary  purpose  novel,  but  from  the  artistic 
point  of  view  of  the  profound  effect  of  these  problems  on 
human  life.  Her  best  productions  are  the  novels  Jerry 
(1891)  and  The  Durket  Sperret  (1897),  and  a  volume  of  short 
stories,  An  Incident  and  Other  Happenings  (1899),  all  dealing 
with  the  Tennessee  mountaineer  and  other  social  and  racial 
problems  in  the  South.  Will  Allen  Dromgoole,  of  Murfrees- 
boro,  the  home  of  Charles  Egbert  Craddock,  is  another 
Tennessee  woman  who  has  written  successful  mountaineer 
and  negro  dialect  stories  and  poems.  Her  best  stories  are 
contained  in  The  Heart  of  Old  Hickory  and  Other  Tennessee 
Stories  (1895). 

James  Lane  Allen.  James  Lane  Allen  (1849-),  of  Ken 
tucky,  has  found  his  most  satisfactory  field  for  literary 
exploitation  in  the  Blue  Grass  region  of  his  native  state. 
His  first  volume  of  short  stories,  Flute  and  Violin  and 
Other  Kentucky  Tales  and  Romances  (1891),  is,  many  critics 
think,  the  best  product  of  his  art.  He  paints  with  an  artist's 
enthusiasm  the  beauties  of  the  Kentucky  scene  and  life. 
There  is  a  certain  poetic  quality  in  his  prose  style,  too,  which 
is  attractive  and  appropriate  to  his  themes.  A  Kentucky 
Cardinal  (1894)  and  its  sequel  Aftermath  (1895)  are  novel 
ettes  full  of  sincere  love  and  enthusiasm  for  nature.  The 
rich  and  beautiful  descriptions  of  nature  in  her  varying 
moods  are  woven  in  with  a  delicate  thread  of  romance  so  as 
to  make  these  stories  decidedly  attractive.  The  Choir  Invis 
ible  (1897) ,  a  longer  novel,  also  found  a  wide  and  eager  public. 
The  Reign  of  Law  (1900)  and  The  Mettle  of  the  Pasture  (1903), 
two  other  larger  novels,  probably  did  not  meet  with  quite 
so  generous  a  reception,  but  they,  too,  were  widely  read. 
The  Reign  of  Law  is  called  in  its  sub-title  "A  Tale  of  the 


304  History  of  American  Literature 

Kentucky  Hemp  Fields, "  but  the  hemp  is  only  the  incidental 
background  or  nature  setting  for  the  effects  of  the  theory 
of  evolution  on  the  mind  and  faith  of  a  young  theological 
student.  There  is  a  frequent  use  of  symbolism  in  Allen's 
stories,  and  in  this  he  may  be  compared  with  Hawthorne. 
Sometimes  this  use  of  romantic  symbolism  seems  extraneous 
to  the  theme  of  the  story  and  has  a  tendency  to  retard  rather 
than  to  propel  or  illuminate  the  action.  Particularly  is  this 
true  of  the  more  recent  works  of  this  writer.  Allen  has 
never  published  hastily.  He  works  long  and  patiently  to 
gain-  his  best  effects.  Breaking  a  silence  of  nearly  six  years 
after  The  Mettle  of  the  Pasture  appeared,  he  published  a 
short  novel  in  1909,  The  Bride  of  the  Mistletoe,  and  followed 
it  the  next  year  with  The  Doctor's  Christmas  Eve.  In  1912 
A  Heroine  in  Bronze  was  published,  and  in  1915  The  Sword 
of  Youth.  These  last  stories  are  written  in  a  somewhat 
strained  and  over-refined  style,  and  they  have  not  aroused 
the  same  enthusiasm  that  greeted  his  earlier  works,  a  good 
many  readers  now  feeling  all  the  more  certain  that 
Mr.  Allen's  first  volumes  were  his  best. 

John  Fox,  Jr.  Another  Kentucky  writer  is  John  Fox,  Jr., 
(1863-).  He  has  found  his  subject  mostly  in  the  Cumber 
land  mountains  of  his  state  and  in  the  peculiar  ideas  of 
justice  and  social  equity  among  the  mountaineers.  His 
earliest  success  in  this  field  was  A  Cumberland  Vendetta  and 
Other  Stories  (1896).  His  most  widely  read  novels  are  The 
Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come  (1903),  The  Trail  of  the 
Lonesome  Pine  (1908),  and  The  Heart  of  the  Hills  (1913). 
Two  additional  volumes  of  short  stories  and  descriptive 
sketches,  H ell- jer-Sar tain  (1897)  and  Blue  Grass  and  Rhodo 
dendron  (1901),  deserve  to  be  mentioned  for  their  faithful 
portrayal  of  Kentucky  scene  and  life,  and  particularly  for 
the  terse  realism  and  dramatic  force  of  some  of  the  stories. 

Two  women  writers  of  Kentucky.  George  Madden 
Martin  (1866-),  of  Louisville,  has  the  distinction  of  pushing 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        305 

the  range  of  the  fiction  country  down  into  the  elementary 
grades  of  the  public  schools  in  her  Emmy  Lou  stories. 
These  stories  appeared  serially  in  McClures  Magazine  and 
were  published  in  book  form  under  the  title  Emmy  Lou, 
Her  Book  and  Her  Heart  (1902).  The  realism  of  child  life, 
the  intense  emotion  of  the  child  soul,  and  the  bigness  of 
the  child's  problems  were  never  better  presented.  Alice 
Hegan  (1870-),  also  of  Louisville,  before  her  marriage  to 
the  poet  and  dramatist  Cale  Young  Rice,  has  produced, 
besides  other  stories,  two  remarkably  clever  and  spontane 
ously  humorous  character  studies  in  Mrs.  Wiggs  of  the 
Cabbage  Patch  (1901)  and  its  sequel  Lovey  Mary  (1903). 
O.  Henry.  It  is  difficult  to  place  O.  Henry  in  any  local 
treatment  of  our  writers  of  fiction.  He  seems  to  belong 
to  the  West — particularly  the  Southwest  —  as  much  as  to 
the  South,  and  as  much  to  New  York  City  as  to  the  West. 
He  is  claimed  by  North  Carolina,  the  state  of  his  birth; 
by  Texas,  the  state  of  his  early  success;  and  by  the  city  of 
New  York,  the  place  where  he  finally  won  national  fame. 
William  Sydney  Porter  (1862-1910),  known  to  the  general 
public  almost  entirely  by  his  pen-name  of  O.  Henry,  was 
born  in  Greensboro,  North  Carolina,  September  n,  1862. 
He  grew  up  in  the  typical  fashion  of  the  moderately  well- 
to-do  people  of  the  post-bellum  period  in  the  Carolinas. 
He  attended  the  elementary  private  school  conducted  by 
his  aunt,  Miss  Evelina  Porter,  to  whose  training  he  attrib 
utes  his  love  for  story-telling.  He  became  a  voracious 
reader,  especially  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and  nineteen. 
At  sixteen  he  left  school  and  became  a  clerk  in  a  Greensboro 
drugstore.  In  the  year  1881  he  went  West  in  company  with 
Dr.  J.  H.  Hall,  eagerly  seizing  the  opportunity  to  get  a 
touch  of  Western  life  on  a  sheep  ranch  in  La  Salle  County, 
Texas.  Here  he  remained  about  two  years,  lounging 
around,  working  with  the  sheep,  and  amusing  his  friends 
by  his  gift  for  sketching  and  by  his  ability  to  tell  a 


306  History  of  American  Literature 

good  story.  It  is  said  that  in  these  leisurely  days  he  read 
Webster's  Unabridged  Dictionary  so  assiduously  that  he 
could  spell  and  define  practically  every  word  in  it. 

0.  Henry  in  Austin,  Texas.  About  1883  Will  Porter,  as 
he  was  familiarly  called,-  moved  to  Austin  and  became  an 
intimate  member  of  the  family  of  Mr.  Joe  Harrell,  whose 
sons  recall  many  humorous  cartoons,  remarkable  exhibitions 
of  spelling  and  defining  words,  and  one  or  two  local  love  stories 
which  Porter  wrote  at  this  time.  He  held  several  clerical 
positions,  one  among  them  being  a  draftsman's  place  in  the 
Texas  State  Land  Office.  Presently  he  fell  in  love  with 
and  was  married  to  Miss  Athol  Estes.  After  four  years 
in  the  Land  Office  he  became  paying  and  receiving  teller 
in  an  Austin  bank,  a  position  which  eventually  led  to 
entanglements  that  put  him  under  a  cloud  for  several 
years.  His  biographer,  Professor  C.  Alphonso  Smith, 
emphatically  declares  that  Porter  was  guiltless  of  the 
charges  made  against  him  and  was  clearly  the  victim  of 
circumstances.  At  any  rate  his  experiences  during  this 
dark  period  gave  him  an  insight  into  the  life  of  the  under 
world  which  he  made  good  use  of  in  his  later  stories. 

0.  Henry's  journalistic  experiences.  O.  Henry  was  in 
evitably  to  become  either  a  writer  or  an  artist.  The  whole 
trend  of  his  life  seemed  to  lead  inevitably  to  humorous 
caricature  and  short-story  writing.  While  he  was  working 
for  the  bank  he  became  editor-owner  and  chief  contributor 
and  illustrator  of  a  breezy  weekly  paper  called  The  Rolling 
Stone,  bearing  under  its  title  the  motto,  "  Out  for  the  Moss." 
This  paper  "rolled"  for  nearly  a  year,  as  O.  Henry  expressed 
it,  and  then  stopped  because  it  had  gathered  no  moss. 
Porter  was  forced,  under  a  charge  of  embezzlement,  to 
resign  from  the  bank,  and  he  removed  to  Houston,  where 
he  obtained  a  position  as  reporter  on  The  Houston  Daily 
Post.  A  little  later,  to  avoid  the  embarrassment  of  an 
open  trial  in  the  United  States  District  Court  at  Austin, 


From  a  photograph  by  Paul  Thompson,  N.Y. 
0.  HENRY 


308  History  of  American  Literature 

he  went  away  to  Central  America.  But  when  he  learned 
that  his  wife  was  hopelessly  ill  with  tuberculosis,  he 
bravely  returned  to  Austin  and  faced  the  charge  of  em 
bezzlement. 

O.  Henry's  successful  career  as  a  short-story  writer.  It  was 
while  he  was  under  the  indictment  for  embezzlement  that  he 
began  to  write  under  the  pen  name  of  O.  Henry.  During  a 
prison  life  of  four  years  he  wrote  a  number  of  stories  which 
were  accepted  and  published  by  good  magazines.  When  he 
was  released,  he  went  to  Pittsburgh,  where  his  daughter 
Margaret  was  living  with  her  grandmother.  Here  he  contin 
ued  to  write,  and  presently  he  was  selling  his  stories  regularly 
at  one  hundred  dollars  apiece  to  Ainslee's  Magazine.  It  was 
in  1902  that  he  removed  to  New  York  to  devote  himself  to 
authorship.  In  1904  he  undertook  to  furnish  to  The  New 
York  World  a  story  a  week  for  an  entire  year,  and  he  renewed 
the  contract  in  1905.  The  success  of  his  first  volume, 
Cabbages  and  Kings  (1904),  a  loosely  connected  series  of 
stories  based  on  his  Central  American  experiences,  had 
already  made  his  name  well  known,  and  from  this  period  on 
to  his  death  on  June  5,  1910,  O.  Henry  was,  so  far  as  popular 
ity  goes,  the  foremost  short-story  writer  of  America.  His 
stories  were  collected  in  twelve  volumes  between  1906  and 
1911.  Rolling  Stones,  a  supplemental  volume  of  fugitive 
material  some  of  which  is  of  biographic  interest,  was 
added  in  1912  by  his  friend  and  literary  executor,  Harry  P. 
Steger,  to  whom  is  due  in  large  measure  the  growth  of 
O.  Henry's  fame.  The  remaining  titles  of  his  books  are 
The  Four  Millions  (1906),  being  stories  of  New  York  life; 
Heart  of  the  West  (1907),  being  largely  stories  of  life  in 
Texas;  The  Gentle  Grafter  (1908),  being  mostly  stories  of 
the  underworld;  The  Trimmed  Lamp  (1907),  The  Voice  of 
the  City  (1908),  Strictly  Business  (1908),  Roads  of  Destiny 
(1909),  Options  (1909),  Whirligigs  (1910),  and  Sixes  and 
Sevens  (1911),  being  collections  of  stories  of  miscellaneous 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        309 

types  and  localities,  but  dealing  mainly  with  life  in  New 
York  City. 

The  best  of  O.  Henry's  stories.  It  is  difficult  to  select 
the  best  of  O.  Henry's  stories,  for  he  has  written  so  many 
of  them, —  something  over  three  hundred  in  all, — and  has 
treated  so  many  themes  in  such  variety  of  localities,  that 
almost  every  reader  will  have  his  own  choice  as  to  the  best 
ten  or  a  dozen  stories.  O.  Henry  had  what  may  be  called 
an  experiencing  nature.  Whatsoever  places  he  visited, 
whatsoever  events  he  witnessed,  whatsoever  characters  h3 
met,  he  immediately  absorbed  into  his  own  experiencing 
nature,  and  all  became  grist  for  his  literary  or  short-story 
mill.  He  wrote  stories  of  ranch  and  city  life  in  Texas  and 
the  great  Southwest;  of  life  in  the  Old  and  the  New  South; 
of  revolutions  and  political  intrigues  in  Central  America ;  of 
tramps  and  outlaws  and  grafters  and  criminals  of  the 
underworld  as  he  found  them  represented  in  the  United  States 
prison  at  Columbus,  Ohio;  and  finally,  and  chief  of  all,  of 
the  multifarious  experiences  of  the  more  than  four  million 
of  representatives  of  the  great  common  masses  in  New 
York  City,  In  particular  he  was  the  gallant  defending 
knight,  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche,  of  the  underpaid,  un 
appreciated,  and  viciously  pursued  shop  girls  of  the  great 
city.  To  select  the  best  stories  covering  all  these  phases 
of  American  life  is,  then,  no  easy  task.  Among  the  Western 
stories  some  prime  favorites  are  "Hearts  and  Crosses," 
"The  Caballero's  Way,"  "The  Reformation  of  Calliope," 
"Madam  Bo-Peep  of  the  Ranches,"  "A  Double-Dyed 
Deceiver,"  and  "A  Retrieved  Reformation."  This  last  is 
better  known  as  "Alias  Jimmie  Valentine,"  the  title  of  a 
play  based  on  the  story.  Among  the  New  York  stories  the 
following  are  excellent:  "The  Gift  of  the  Magi,"  "A  Service 
of  Love,"  "An  Unfinished  Story,"  "The  Last  Leaf,"  "The 
Green  Door,"  and  "The  Duplicity  of  Hargraves."  The 
scene  of  "A  Municipal  Report,"  one  of  the  best  of  all 


3io  History  of  American  Literature 

O.  Henry's  stories,  is  laid  in  Nashville,  Tennessee,  mainly 
to  disprove  Frank  Norris's  assertion  that  nothing  romantic 
could  happen  in  such  a  city  as  Nashville. 

O.  Henry's  humor.  If  there  is  a  single  characteristic  of 
O.  Henry's  that  has  endeared  him  to  the  American  public 
more  than  any  other,  it  is  his  ever-present  and  all-pervasive 
sense  of  humor.  It  is  true  that  his  inordinate  use  of  slang 
has  lost  him  many  admirers,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that 
slang  in  the  mouths  of  many  of  O.  Henry's  characters  is 
perfectly  natural  and  consistent,  and  that,  moreover,  the 
clever  use  of  slang  is  to  the  great  mass  of  readers  distinctly 
humorous.  But  slang  aside,  the  dominant  trait  of  O.  Henry's 
humor  is  the  continued  and  yet  varied  recurrence  of 
the  unexpected.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  almost  constant 
use  of  the  surprise  ending  in  his  stories.  The  reader  will 
inevitably  smile  as,  figuratively  speaking,  he  is  tossed  into 
the  air  by  O.  Henry's  clever  trick  of  the  double  surprise  at 
the  conclusion  of  almost  every  story.  Many  of  O.  Henry's 
stories  seem  to  contravene  nature  and  ordinary  conventional 
life  with  surprising  and  delightful  humor.  "A  Harlem 
Tragedy"  and  "The  Ransom  of  Red  Chief"  are  examples 
in  point.  In  the  first  a  woman  dotes  on  her  husband 
because  he  beats  her  and  cuffs  her  about;  in  the  second 
two  desperadoes,  instead  of  securing  a  large  ransom  for  a 
wild  and  wiry  young  boy  whom  they  have  kidnaped,  are 
forced  themselves  to  pay  the  boy's  father  a  considerable 
sum  to  take  the  young  scamp  off  their  hands.  O.  Henry 
is  extremely  fond  of  puns,  .humorous  word-play,  and 
malapropisms.  Occasionally  a  whole  story  is  based  upon 
a  pun,  as  in  "The  Ransom  of  Mack"  and  "Girl."  In 
many  stories  O.  Henry  allows  his  ignorant  characters  to 
use  big  words  in  the  wrong  sense,  mispronounce  and  mis 
interpret,  misquote  familiar  passages  from  Shakespeare 
and  the  Bible,  and  make  all  sorts  of  ludicrous  and  absurd 
blunders,  much  to  the  delight  of  unsophisticated  readers. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:  Southern  Group        311 

But  O.  Henry's  humor  is  deeper  than  all  these  mere  verbal 
quibbles,  absurd  contradictions,  and  playful  superficialities. 
It  is  inherent  in  his  conception  of  character  and  in  his 
attitude  toward  the  world.  It  is  pervasive  and  funda 
mental,  and  like  all  finer  humor  it  is  incapable  of  final  analysis. 
Final  summary.  The  chief  qualities  of  O.  Henry's  stories 
are  realism  touched  with  the  glamour  of  romance,  piquancy 
and  cleverness  of  style  and  plot,  a  raciness  of  language  with 
a  large  intermixture  of  slang,  a  real  sympathy  and  true 
comprehension  of  the  varied  types  of  our  democratic  life, 
especially  of  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  and  an  unfailing 
sense  for  the  humorous  and  pathetic  in  every  conceivable 
situation.  He  broke  most  of  the  conventional  canons  for 
correct  writing,  and  yet  he  was  a  remarkably  good  technician 
in  his  own  type  of  story.  He  says  that  the  first  rule  in 
writing  stories  is  to  "write  to  please  yourself;  there  is  no 
second  rule."  The  most  striking  individual  characteristic -of 
his  stories  as  a  whole  is  the  surprise  ending.  Guess,  prepare 
for  it,  watch  for  it  as  you  may,  you  will  inevitably  be  brought 
up  with  a  laugh  and'  a  surprised  feeling  on  the  last  page  or 
even  at  the  very  last  lines  of  nearly  every  one  of  his  stories. 
Hyder  E.  Rollins  in  writing  of  this  characteristic  of 
O.  Henry's  makes  a  happy  comparison:  "Children  play 
'  crack-the-whip '  not  for  the  fun  of  the  long  preliminary 
run,  but  for  the  excitement  of  the  final  sharp  twist  that 
throws  them  off  their  feet.  So  adults  read  O.  Henry, 
impatiently  glancing  at  the  swiftly  moving  details  in  pleased 
expectancy  of  a  surprise  ending."  But  O.  Henry's  stories 
have  more  in  them  than  the  mere  cleverness  of  their  surprise 
endings.  They  are  drawn  from  real  life,  and  there  is  in  them 
a  convincing  actuality  and  truth,  an  interpretative  power,  a 
charm,  a  breadth  of  sympathy  which  lifts  them  into  the  realm 
of  art.  There  is  no  longer  any  question  of  the  security  of 
this  writer's  place  among  the  short-story  writers  of  America. 
If  Poe  said  the  first  word  on  the  modern  short  story, 


312  History  of  American  Literature 

certainly  O.  Henry  has  said  the  latest.  Professor  C. 
Alphonso  Smith  in  his  admirable  0.  Henry  Biography  (1916) 
succinctly  summarizes  the  progress  of  the  American  short 
story  in  saying  that  Irving  legendized  the  short  story,  Poe 
standardized  it,  Hawthorne  allegorized  it,  Bret  Harte  first 
successfully  localized  it,  and  O.  Henry  humanized  it. 

4.     THE  CENTRAL  AND  FAR  WESTERN  GROUP 
PRELIMINARY  SURVEY 

Meaning  of  the  term  West.  West  is  a  relative  term. 
At  one  time  in  our  history  it  meant  the  section  of  the  interior 
just  beyond  the  Atlantic  coast  settlements;  next  it  meant 
the  section  beyond  the  Appalachian  range,  including  the 
Ohio  and  Tennessee  valleys;  at  another  time  it  meant  the 
great  Mississippi  Valley,  and  then  it  was  extended  to  cover 
all  the  northwest  territory  drained  by  the  Missouri  River 
and  its  tributaries;  and  finally  the  term  came  to  mean  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  all  the  territory  beyond,  known  as 
the  Pacific  slope.  We  still  speak  of  the  central  portion  of 
our  country  as  the  great  plains  of  the  Middle  West,  of  the 
territory  north  and  west  of  Missouri  as  the  Northwest,  of  the 
territory  south  and  west  of  Missouri  as  the  Southwest,  and 
of  the  Rocky  Mountain  or  Pacific  slope  territory  as  the  Far 
West.  In  studying  the  latest  division  of  our  literature  we 
may  designate  it  as  the  Central  and  Far  Western  Group. 
We  might  easily  divide  it  into  two  or  more  groups,  but 
since  the  literary  history  of  the  entire  West  in  reality 
covers  but  little  more  than  half  a  century,  and  since  the 
dominant  tone  of  all  this  later  literature  is  practically 
identical  throughout  the  nation,  we  may  at  present  con 
veniently  consider  in  one  group  the  writers  from  the  Central 
and  the  Far  West. 

Period  covered:  1865-1919.  We  shall  find  that  the 
production  of  literature  of  permanent  value  in  this  latest 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         313 

period  of  our  national  literature  really  dates  from  about 
1865,  or  the  period  from  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  to  the 
present.  The  West  had  been  already  for  more  than  half 
a  century  rapidly  filling  up,  but  the  pioneers  were  engaged 
in  subduing  the  new  territory  almost  exactly  as  the  colonists 
had  done  along  the  Atlantic  coast  at  an  earlier  period,  and 
like  the  colonists,  they  had  little  or  no  time  for  the  develop 
ment  of  trie  arts.  Bold  pioneers  like  Daniel  Boone,  George 
Rogers  Clark,  and  Zebulon  Pike  had  already  pierced  far 
into  the  western  wilderness,  and  settlers  gradually  followed 
to  fill  up  the  sections  explored.  Population  advanced  along 
the  line  of  least  resistance  and  most  promise,  that  is,  along 
the  valleys  of  the  great  drainage  systems,  such  as  the  Ohio, 
Tennessee*  Mississippi,  and  Missouri  rivers.  At  last  the  rail 
roads  cattle,  to  supplant  the  old  methods  of  overland  travel 
—  the  i^eairie  schooner,  the  stage  coach,  and  the  pony 
express.  With  the  improved  methods  of  transportation 
and  impelled  by  various  impulses,  such  as  crop  failures  at 
home,  the  discovery  of  gold  and  silver  from  time  to  time 
in  the  new  country,  and  land  hunger,  emigrants  moved  to 
the  West,  so  that  by  the  middle  of  the  century  many  of 
the  Western  states  had  already  been  admitted  to  the  Union 
and  most  of  the  remaining  domain  was  organized  into 
territories  awaiting  admission  as  soon  as  the  requisite  number 
of  inhabitants  was  attained. 

Westward  territorial  expansion.  It  is  unnecessary  to  go 
further  into  the  acquisition  of  the  vast  western  territory 
than  to  remind  the  American  history  student  that  Jefferson 
completed  the  important  Louisiana  purchase  in  1803,  the 
same  year  in  which  Ohio  was  admitted  as  a  state.  The 
wonderful  expedition  of  exploration  made  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  in  1804-06  had  revealed  the  character  and  extent 
of  the  great  Northwest  as  far  as  Oregon  and  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  territory  around  the  Great  Lakes  had  been 
organized  by  1809,  and  in  1818  Illinois  was  admitted  as  a 
21 


314 


History  of  American  Literature 


state.  In  1820  the  vast  territory  north  and  west  of  the  south 
ern  boundary  line  of  Missouri  was  organized,  under  the 
Missouri  Compromise,  as  territory  for  the  making  of  future 
free  states,  and  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  state  in  1821. 


From  the  painting  by  Denman  Fink 
SETTLERS  MOVING  WEST  ALONG  THE  CUMBERLAND  ROAD 

Wagon  roads  were  opened  throughout  the  West.  In  1825 
the  Erie  Canal  was  completed,  thus  uniting  by  water  the 
extreme  western  lakes  with  Albany,  New  York,  and  opening 
water  communication  thence  south  on  the  Hudson  River 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  In  1841  a  railroad  was  completed 
as  far  west  as  Albany,  and  ten  years  later  Chicago  could  be 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         315 

reacjied  by  rail.  It  was  not  until  1869  that  the  first  great 
transcontinental  railroad,  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  seaboard,  was  finally  put  into  operation,  but  in 
the  meantime  the  overland  stage  routes  had  been,  greatly 
enlarged  and  improved,  so  that  the  rush  of  population  west 
ward  could  be  at  least  partially  accommodated.  Texas 
gained  its  independence  from  Mexico  in  1836  and  applied 
for  admission  into  the  Union  in  1845.  Then  followed  the 
Mexican  War,  and  by  the  peace  of  1848  the  United  States 
acquired  not  only  the  Rio  Grande  border  territory  which 
was  in  dispute,  but  also  the  fine,  rich  territory  on  the  Pacific 
slope  and  that  northwest  of  Texas,  including  California, 
Utah,  and  New  Mexico.  In  this  same  year  gold  was  dis 
covered  in  California,  and  in  1849  the  Pacific  slope  territory 
was  deluged  with  prospectors,  later  proudly  designated  as 
"forty-niners."  In  1850  California  was  admitted  as  a 
state.  The  vast  Oregon  country,  reaching  as  far  north  as 
Alaska,  had  been  for  a  long  time  claimed  by  both  England 
and  the  United  States,  but  by  a  compromise  agreement  in 
1846  it  was  divided  on  the  49th  parallel  of  latitude,  the 
present  boundary  line  between  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  In  this  year,  too,  Iowa  was  admitted  as  a  state; 
in  1848  Wisconsin;  in  1858  Minnesota;  in  1859  Oregon.  In 
1854  began  the  great  struggle  between  the  slavery  and 
antislavery  forces  in  the  Kansas-Nebraska  territory,  and 
these  states  were  eventually  brought  in  as  free  states  in 
1 86 1  and  1867  respectively.  Thus  gradually  the  whole 
belt  of  the  North  American  continent  now  occupied  by  the 
United  States  was  organized  into  territories,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  Civil  War  by  far  the  greater  number  of  these 
territories  had  been  admitted  into  the  Union. 

Character  of  the  Western  literature.  This  condensed 
survey  of  the  rapid  development  of  the  West  will  give  us  a 
basis  for  judging  the  literature  that  was  to  come  from  this 
section.  The  first  writings  were  naturally  descriptive  of 


316  History  of  American  Literature 

the  new  territory,  its  life,  its  possibilities,  its  resources. 
The  crude  records  of  pioneers  like  Daniel  Boone  and 
George  Rogers  Clark,  and  those  of  more  scientific  explorers 
like  Lewis  and  Clark,  and  the  private  records,  diaries  and 
correspondence  of  other  pioneer  settlers  make  up  the  first 
contribution.  The  writers  were  largely  American  emi 
grants-  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  Even  down  to  the 
last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  we  shall  find  that 
many  of  the  Western  writers  were  born  and  educated  in 
New  England,  the  Middle  Atlantic  states,  and  the  older 
Southern  states,  and  were  Western  only  in  the  sense  that 
they  had  moved  west  with  the  tide  of  population  and  were 
recording  Western  scene  and  life  as  they  saw  it.  But  in 
more  recent  years  the  native  sons  of  the  West  have  come 
forward  to  express  the  real  spirit  of  their  section  and  at 
the  same  time  of  the  nation  at  large;  certainly  the  most 
characteristic  literary  products  of  the  West  since  1870  have 
come  from  writers  born  and  educated  there. 

Americanism,  or  the  democratic  spirit.  The  expression 
of  pure  Americanism,  of  the  democratic  spirit  in  its  broadest 
significance,  is  the  characteristic  note  of  our  Western  litera 
ture.  Perhaps  this  native  American  spirit  has  developed 
more  distinctly  and  rapidly  in  the  West  because  this  section 
was  freest  from  the  embittering  effects  of  the  Civil  War.  Its 
territory  saw  little  of  the  actual  military  campaigns,  and 
its  people  were  easily  and  quickly  absorbed  in  their  problems 
Df  developing  the  raw  resources  of  the  new  country;  so  that 
they  had  little  time  to  spend  upon  vain  regrets,  clearing 
iip  old  scores,  and  preparing  plans  for  the  reconstruction 
and  rehabilitation  of  the  territory  devastated  by  war.  The 
Civil  War  itself  was  a  great  educative  force,  and  the  tide  of 
emigration  westward  was  only  one  of  the  effects  of  the 
diffusion  of  a  resulting  general  knowledge  of  the  resources 
and  character  of  our  country  as  a  whole.  New  towns 
began  to  spring  up  as  if  by  magic.  With  the  invention 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         317 

and  introduction  of  improved  machinery,  vast  stretches 
of  rich  agricultural  lands  were  brought  under  cultivation, 
and  in  the  Middle  West  wheat  and  corn,  were  eventually 
grown  in  such  quantities  as  to  make  this  section  one  of  the 
great  granaries  of  the  world.  The  Great  Lakes  and  the 
Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries  formed  the  chief  arteries 
for  commerce,  and  the  steamboat  became  the  common 
carrier  for  the  produce  of  all  the  Central  West.  New 
writers  like  Mark  Twain  and  Bret  Harte  came  to  chant 
the  vigorous  life  of  river  and  mining. camp;  great  descriptive 
writers  like  John  Muir  to  describe  its  wonderful  beauty  of 
scenery;  clear- voiced  poets  like  Joaquin  Miller  and  Edward 
Rowland  Sill  to  sing  the  songs  of  the  Sierras;  and  novelists 
like  Frank  Norris  to  write  the  epic  of  wheat  with  all  the 
complicated  financial  and  industrial  machinery  involved 
in  its  production  and  distribution  throughout  the  world. 
The  wild  herds  of  buffaloes  had  disappeared  before  the  on 
coming  tide  of  civilization,  and  immense  herds  of  cattle  and 
sheep  and  horses  came  to  take  their  place.  In  this  rich, 
wild,  broad,  free  country  it  was  but  natural  that  the  new 
democratic  note  should  predominate.  Most  of  the  writers 
were  what  we  may  term  self-educated  men,  that  is,  they 
rarely  had  the  advantage  of  a  classical  or  college  training. 
They  gained  their  knowledge  from  actual  contact  with  life 
rather  than  from  books  and  academic  lectures,  and  they 
were  freed,  consequently,  from  the  restraints  and  limita 
tions  which  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  older  literature  and 
standard  literary  models  would  have  imposed  upon  them. 
The  New  York  and  New  England  writers  had  followed 
largely  in  the  beaten  literary  tracks,  and  had  submitted, 
perhaps  unconsciously,  to  European  rather  than  American 
ideals  and  standards  of  literary  excellence.  The  authors 
of  the  new  West  hewed  out  fresh  paths  of  literary  travel 
and  followed  no  standards  except  such  as  their  own  sense 
of  fitness  fixed  for  them. 


318  History  of  American  Literature 

Lincoln,  a  typical  product  of  the  West.  Abraham  Lincoln 
(1809-1865)  is  a 'typical  product  of  the  Middle  West.  He 
was  born  in  a  log  cabin  in  Kentucky,  moved  with  his  parents 
into  Indiana  when  he  was  seven  years  old,  and  on  into  Illinois 
just  as  he  reached  his  twenty-first  year.  He  worked  hard 
on  the  farm,  later  becoming  known  as  the  "rail-splitter," 
studied  the  Bible  and  Shakespeare  closely,  and  thus  prepared 
himself  for  his  future  career  as  a  statesman.  He  had 
absorbed  the  very  essence  of  the  new  Americanism  as 
typified  in  the  Western, freedom  and  democratic  spirit,  and 
in  1860,  in  spite  of  all  obstacles,  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  United  States.  Every  child  knows  of  the  terrible 
conflict  which  followed  his  inauguration  in  1861,  and  every 
American  now  honors  Abraham  Lincoln  along  with  George 
Washington  as  one  of  the  great  presidents  of  our  country. 
The  tragic  death  of  Lincoln  at  the  hands  of  an  assassin  in 
Washington,  April  15,  1865,  plunged  the  whole  country, 
North  and  South,  into  grief.  No  more  unfortunate  thing 
could  have  happened — especially  to  the  South,  facing  as  it 
did  the  trying  period  of  reconstruction  which  was  to  fol 
low — than  to  lose  at  this  critical  juncture  the  influence 
of  the  great-brained,  justice-loving,  tender-hearted  Lincoln. 
We  do  not  ordinarily  think  of  Abraham  Lincoln  as  a  lit 
erary  man,  but  as  a  wise  statesman  and  leader,  a  clear 
thinker,  and  a  forceful  debater.  But  in  the  critical  and 
distressing  period  through  which  Lincoln  was  called  to  lead 
our  nation,  the  events  all  seemed  to  converge  to  a  focus 
in  the  dramatic  moment  when  he  delivered  the  one 
supremely  great  literary  utterance  of  his  life,  the  celebrated 
"Address  at  the  Dedication  of  the  Gettysburg  National 
Cemetery."  The  simplicity  and  directness  of  style,  the 
compact  and  logical  structure  the  sincerity  and  power 
of  the  emotional  appeal  of  this  brief  address  have  rarely 
been  equaled  and  have  never  been  surpassed  in  American 
oratory. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         319 

The  spirit  of  optimism  and  humor.  Besides  this  democratic 
or  national  note,  one  other  general  characteristic  may  be 
affirmed  of  Western  literature  as  a  whole:  it  is  peculiarly 
suffused  with  a  spirit  of  optimism  and  a  sense  of  the  humor 
ous.  Melancholy,  gloom,  pessimism,  the  modern  note  of 
morbidness  and  despair,  have  found  little  or  no  place  in  the 
literature  of  the  West.  Romance  is  prominent,  optimism 
everywhere  apparent,  and  humor  widely  diffused.  "The 
Laughter  of  the  West"  is  the  title  of  a  chapter  in  Professor 
Pat  tee's  History  of  American  Literature  Since  i8jo.  Analyz 
ing  the  chief  contributions  of  the  West  to  American  literature, 
Professor  George  Edward  Woodberry  says:  "The  earliest 
stir  of  original  literary  impulse  in  the  West  was  by  way  of 
humor.  Laughter  was  bred  into  the  people ;  it  solved  many 
situations,  it  lessened  the  friction  of  close  personal  contact, 
it  made  for  peace,  being  the  alternative  for  ill-nature  or  a 
blow.  The  constancy  of  it  shows  its  spontaneity.  In  the 
camps  of  the  miner,  on  the  river  steamboats,  in  the  taverns 
of  the  court  circuit,  there  sprang  up  inexhaustible  anecdotes, 
rallies  of  wit,  yarns,  and  fanciful  lies  and  jokes  on  the  dullard 
or  the  stranger.  Out  of  this  atmosphere  came  Lincoln, 
our  greatest  practical  humorist,  with  that  marvelous  power 
of  turning  all  he  touched  into  wisdom;  and  on  the  free, 
imaginative  side,  Mark  Twain,  our  capital  example,  was 
blood  and  bone  of  the  Western  humor."  1 

Publishing  centers.  In  so  vast  a  territory  and  so  young  a 
business  and  social  organization  it  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  definite  schools  or  coteries  of  writers  or  any  important 
literary  centers  should  be  developed.  It  is  perhaps  due 
largely  to  the  isolation  and  widely  scattered  distribution 
of  the  Western  writers  that  they  have  been  forced  to  rely 
more  fully  on  their  own  independence  of  thought  and 
originality  of  expression.  The  publishing  centers  remained 
largely  in  the  East,  it  is  true,  but  the  demand  for  fresh 

i America  in  Literature,  p.  158. 


320  History  of  American  Literature 

local  literature  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  South  and 
West  alike,  was  not  to  be  resisted  by  the  Northern  and 
Eastern  publishers,  even  if  they  had  desired  to  resist  it, 
a  thing  which  in  reality  the  publishers  never  did.  The 
Western  newspapers  developed  rapidly,  and  some  publishing 
centers  like  Cincinnati,  Indianapolis,  St.  Louis,  Chicago, 
and  San  Francisco  sprang  up  to  supply  the  growing  demand 
for  the  publication  of  both  books  and  magazines.  The 
Overland  Monthly  was  established  in  1868  in  San  Francisco 
with  Bret  Harte  as  its  editor,  and  in  1880  The  Dial,  a 
critical  literary  journal,  made  its  appearance  at  Chicago.1 
Finally  at  Chicago  in  1912,  Poetry,  a  Magazine  of  Verse, 
was  founded  by  Harriet  Monroe,  as  a  mouthpiece  of  the 
"New  Poetry"  of  the  last  two  decades. 

THE   MAJOR   WESTERN   WRITERS 

Classification  of  the  writers.  The  full  spirit  of  the  West 
is  well  represented  in  its  literature.  Besides  Lincoln,  who 
has  already  been  mentioned  as  the  typical  figure  of  the  new 
democratic  spirit,  the  major  prose  writers  are  Mark  Twain 
and  Bret  Harte,  and  the  major  poets  are  Joaquin  Miller, 
Eugene  Field,  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  and  William  Vaughn 
Moody.  From  the  national  point  of  view  there  may  be 
some  objection  to  the  classification  of  all  of  these  as  major 
writers.  There  may  be  in  them  some  lack  of  literary  con 
formity  and  adherence  to  traditions,  but  they  have  voiced 
a  new  American  ideal;  and  whether  all  of  them  may  be 
classed  in  the  rank  of  major  writers  or  not,  is  purely  an 
academic  question.  All  of  them  certainly  deserve  large 
attention  in  any  well  balanced  survey  of  our  literature. 

Samuel  Langhorne  Clemens — Mark  Twain.  Mark  Twain 
is  not  merely  our  greatest  humorist;  he  is  also  one  of  our 
greatest  creative  geniuses,  and  he  is  undoubtedly  our  one 
writer  who  is  most  thoroughly  representative  of  the  genuine 

iln  1918  The  Dial  was  transferred  to  New  York  City. 


SAMUEL   LANGHORNE    CLEMENS 

(Mark  Twain) 


322  History  of  American  Literature 

American  spirit  and  life.  For  a  long  time  he  was  looked  upon 
as  a  mere  jester,  and  his  works  were  not  accepted  as  belong 
ing  at  all  to  the  best  class  of  literature ;  but  from  the  first  he 
was  accepted  at  his  real  worth  by  a  few  discerning  ones,  and 
during  the  past  two  decades  the  critics  and  the  public  alike 
have  come  to  realize  that  Mark  Twain  is  one  of  the  few 
creative  giants  that  have  sprung  out  of  our  democratic  soil. 
He  shares  with  Walt  Whitman  the  distinction  of  coming  up 
directly  from  the  common  democratic  masses,  and  with  him, 
too,  he  shares  the  almost  unanimous  approval  and  applause 
of  European  critics. 

Early  life  as  a  printer  and  river  pilot.  Samuel  Langhorne 
Clemens  (1835-1910),  the  son  of  John  Clemens  and  Jane 
Lampton,  both  of  unpretentious  but  sterling  Southern 
families,  was  born  November  30,  1835,  in  the  hamlet  of 
Florida,  Missouri,  some  fifty  miles  west  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Four  years  later  the  family  moved  to  Hannibal,  a 
typical  river  town  about  a  hundred  miles  north  of  St.  Louis; 
and  here  grew  up  in  all  the  freedom  of  that  border  life  the 
boy  who  was  to  make  the  town  famous  by  enshrining  its 
life  in  those  immortal  books,  Tom  Sawyer  and  Huckleberry 
Finn.  It  was  almost  impossible  to  keep  Sam  in  the  village 
school  or  to  make  him  study  his  lessons,  but  the  effort  was 
kept  up  until  he  reached  his  twelfth  year.  He  was  then 
apprenticed  to  learn  the  printer's  trade,  a  fortunate  choice, 
since  it  brought  him  into  contact  with  type  and  printer's 
ink  and  thus  helped  to  complete  the  scanty  education  he 
had  received  in  the  village  school.  He  worked  for  six  years 
as  a  "printer's  devil"  on  the  local  newspapers,  and  as  one  of 
his  companions  remarked,  he  was  rightly  named  in  this 
position.  Then  he  took  a  sort  of  journeyman's  trip  to  the 
East  to  complete  his  training  as  a  printer.  He  remained 
for  a  year  or  more  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  but  he 
was  not  satisfied  to  become  a  mere  typesetting  machine, 
and  so  he  turned  his  face  westward  once  more  to  seek  fame 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         323 

and  fortune  in  the  land  of  his  birth.  For  about  two  years 
he  was  Horace  Bixby's  cub,  or  assistant  on  a  steamboat, 
learning  the  business  of  a  pilot  on  the  Mississippi  River, 
and  for  about  two  years  more  he  was  himself  a  master  pilot 
on  that  treacherous  river.  He  was  proud  of  his  profession, 
and  later  in  life  he  declared  that  he  loved  it  far  better  than 
any  other  business  he  had  tried.  The  Civil  War  brought  to 
a  close  this  period  of  his  career,  but  we  have  a  faithful  por 
trayal  of  the  vanished  past  of  Mississippi  pilotage  in  his 
reminiscent  treatment  in  Life  on  the  Mississippi  (1883). 

Experiences  in  the  Far  West.  His  next  experience  carried 
him  to  the  Far  West.  He  joined  a  troop  preparatory  to 
enlisting  in  the  Confederate  Army,  but  a  few  weeks  of 
camp  life  convinced  him  that  soldiering  was  not  an  occupa 
tion  that  suited  him.  He  was  led  by  his  Southern  ancestry 
and  his  environment  (for  he  was  reared  in  a  slave-holding 
community)  to  espouse  the  Southern  cause,  but  deep  down 
in  his  heart  there  was  little  enthusiasm  for  it.  His  eldest 
brother  had  just  been  appointed  territorial  secretary  o! 
Nevada,  and  young  Clemens  was  offered  the  opportunity 
of  going  with  him  as  his  assistant.  So  during  the  years 
from  1 86 1  to  1867  he  was  again  enlarging  his  education  by 
looking  on  and  taking  part  in  those  wild  and  stirring  activi 
ties  of  the  newly  opened  West.  He  soon  felt  the  call  of  the 
gold  and  struck  out  for  fortune  in  the  mining  districts.  He 
did  not  succeed  in  finding  much  gold,  though  he  came 
perilously  near  to  it  on  several  occasions,  but  he  did  succeed 
in  storing  his  mind  with  all  those  wonderful  experiences  out 
of  which  he  was  to  mint  the  golden  romance  of  some  of  his 
later  books,  such  as  The  Celebrated  Jumping  Frog  of  Cal- 
averas  County  and  Other  Sketches  (1867)  and  Roughing  It 
(1872). 

Newspaper  reporter:  origin  of  pen-name  "Mark  Twain." 
Discouraged  in  his  fruitless  mining  operations,  young 
Clemens  turned  to  his  old  occupation  and  became  local 


324  History  of  American  Literature 

reporter  on  The  Enterprise,  a  rather  distinctive  paper  pub 
lished  at  Virginia  City,  a  thriving  mining  town  that  had 
sprung  up  like  magic  around  the  great  silver  mines  known  as 
the  Comstock  lode.  Many  were  the  practical  jokes  and 
startling  schemes  indulged  in  by  the  lively  group  of  news 
paper  men  engaged  on  this  paper,  and  it  was  the  rampant 
imagination  of  the  young  reporter  that  usually  led  in  these 
escapades.  Soon  he  was  sent  to  Carson  City  to  report  the 
doings  of  the  newly  formed  legislature,  and  as  was  expected 
of  him,  he  sent  back  a  series  of  exceedingly  breezy  letters. 
These  were  unsigned  at  first,  but  they  were  being  widely 
copied,  and  he  felt  that  he  ought  to  choose  a  pen-name  so 
as  to  conserve  and  center  his  reputation  around  it.  He  hit 
upon  the  happy  combination  of  Mark  Twain,  an  old  river 
term  meaning  the  mark  registering  two  (twain)  fathoms,  or 
twelve  feet,  of  water.  He  said  it  had  a  comforting  sound, 
for  whenever  a  pilot  heard  that  reading  called  out,  he  knew  he 
was  in  a  safe  depth  of  water.  His  reputation  was  spreading 
rapidly  now,  and  so  the  call  to  the  wider  world  led  him  to 
San  Francisco.  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the 
immediate  cause  of  his  leaving  .Carson  City  was  to  avoid 
prosecution  upon  the  charge  of  accepting  a  challenge  to  a 
duel,  even  though  the  duel  was  the  celebrated  one  which 
never  came  off.  At  San  Francisco  he  met  Bret  Harte  and 
other  men  qf  local  fame  as  journalists,  poets,  lecturers,  and 
artists  of  one  sort  or  another,  and  under  the  influence  of  this 
new  environment  his  style  developed  rapidly  from  what  he 
called  an  awkward  and  grotesque  sort  of  natural  utterance, 
into  a  more  facile  literary  type  of  prose. 

Mark  Twain's  luck  as  a  pocket  miner.  His  vigorous  news 
letters  which  he  still  sent  back  to  his  old  employers  .on  The 
Virginia  City  Enterprise  soon  got  him  into  trouble  with  the 
police  of  San  Francisco,  —  for  he  did  not  hesitate  to  attack 
some  of  their  corrupt  practices,  —  and  he  was  forced  to  leave 
the  city  for  a  while.  With  his  pal,  Jim  Gillis,  who  was  the 


MARK    TWAIN 

From  a  statue  which  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  River  near  Hannibal, 

Missouri. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         325 

original  of  Bret  Harte's  "Truthful  James,"  he  went  to  the 
mountains  of  east  California  and  engaged  in  the  fascinating 
game  of  pocket  mining.  The  partners  were  just  on  the 
verge  of  uncovering  a  rich  treasure  of  nuggets  when  they 
deserted  their  claim  and  allowed  some  more  fortunate  miners 
to  come  along  and  discover  the  pocket  just  a  few  feet  from 
where  they  stopped.  But  the  real  chance  of  Mark  Twain's 
life  came  from  this  experience,  for  here  he  ran  across  the 
droll  story  of  "The  Celebrated  Jumping  Frog  of  Calaveras 
County. "  It  was  early  in  1865  that  he  first  heard  the  story, 
and  by  the  end  of  this  year,  upon  the  publication  of  the  story 
in  the  East,  Mark  Twain  was  well  on  his  way  to  fame. 

"The  Innocents  Abroad,"  After  the  publication  of  this 
early  volume  of  sketches  in  1867,  he  continued  his  news 
paper  work  in  San  Francisco,  making  one  very  successful 
trip  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  He  also  won  some  fame  as  a 
lecturer  at  this  time.  But  the  first  really  great  success  came 
when  he  got  a  commission  to  travel  through  Europe  and  the 
the  Holy  Land  with  a  group  of  Americans  who  were  to  make 
voyage  in  the  "Quaker  City."  By  skilful  persuasions  he 
convinced  the  owners  of  The  Alia  Calif ornian  that  he  could 
send  them  a  series  of  letters  that  would  be  worth  the  price 
of  the  trip,  something  over  $i  ,200.  He  wrote  fifty-odd  letters 
of  his  experiences  on  this  trip,  and  these  were  later  collected 
in  a  book  which  took  the  public  by  storm  —  namely,  The 
Innocents  Abroad  (1869).  Other  books  of  travel  and  of 
impressions  gained  abroad  had  been  written  by  Irving, 
Longfellow,  Hawthorne,  and  Bayard  Taylor,  but  this  was 
an  entirely  new  type.  It  was  extravagantly  humorous, 
boisterously  funny,  and  yet  filled  with  wonderful  passages  of 
description  and  comment  on  the  really  impressive  scenes  of 
the  Old  World.  The  book  was  at  bottom  a  severe  satire 
on  the  sentimental  and  gushy  type  of  description  that  was 
found  in  the  guide  books  and  travel  letters  of  the  day. 
Mark  Twain  went  abroad  with  his  eyes  open,  and  he  laughed 


326  History  of  American  Literature 

to  scorn  those  American  innocents  who  were  ever  ready  to 
gulp  down  with  rolling  eyes  and  ecstatic  exclamations  every 
fossilized  legend  that  the  sentimental  guide  books  or  the 
stereotyped  talk  of  their  paid  guides  gave  them.  The  breezy, 
original,  humorous,  human,  and  frankly  American  revela 
tions  of  this  new  writer  who  saw  things  with  his  own  eyes 
and  reported  them  as  he  saw  them  met  with  immediate  and 
widespread  approval. 

His  marriage:  journalistic  work.  It  was  on  this  tour  that 
Mark  Twain  met  Charlie  Langdon  and  saw  for  the  first  time 
the  beautiful  miniature  of  Langdon's  sister  Olivia,  the 
woman  who  was  to  become  his  wife  and  the  most  pro 
foundly  formative  influence  on  his  character  and  on  his 
later  attitude  toward  his  art.  She  was  a  wealthy  girl,  and 
it  seemed  almost  unthinkable  that  an  unknown  Westerner 
without  money,  formal  culture,  or  social  position  should 
aspire  to  her  hand.  But  by  persistence  and  patience  Mark 
Twain  overcame  all  obstacles,  and  he  was  in  every  sense  of 
the  word  happily  mated  with  this  charming  woman.  She 
called  him  always  by  the  suggestive  pet  name  of  "Youth," 
and  all  through  her  life,  by  his  own  confession,  she  was  his 
most  helpful  and  sympathetic  critic,  aiding  him  to  realize 
himself  to  the  fullest  extent  in  the  more  serious  and  lasting 
products  of  his  art.  Upon  their  marriage  in  1870,  they 
went  to  Buffalo,  where  through  the  help  of  Mr.  Langdon 
Mark  Twain  had  become  part  owner  and  associate  editor  of 
The  Buffalo  Express.  But  the  venture  was  not  a  fortunate 
one;  sorrows  due  to  death  and  sickness  followed,  and  pres 
ently  the  young  couple  sold  their  property  in  Buffalo  and 
retired  to  Elmira,  New  York,  for  the  summer,  and  then 
moved  to  Hartford,  Connecticut,  where  they  made  their 
home  for  a  number  of  years. 

Mark  Twain  as  a  lecturer.  After  giving  up  his  journal 
istic  position,  Clemens  arranged  to  go  on  the  lecture  plat 
form  to  recoup  his  fortunes.  He  had  succeeded  from  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         327 

very  first  as  a  lecturer  in  California,  and  had  captivated 
audiences  in  the  East  and  in  the  Middle  West  just  after 
his  return  from  his  first  trip  abroad;  so  he  undertook  his 
second  tour  with  full  confidence.  He  won  his  audiences  by 
his  slow,  drawling  speech  and  by  his  narrative  and  dramatic 
powers,  as  well  as  by  his  inimitable  dry  humor  and  flashes 
of  pure  wit.  He  was  acclaimed  the  most  popular  lecturer 
and  reader  in  America,  but  he  never  liked  this  work  and 
resorted  to  the  platform  only  when  it  was  necessary  to 
recover  from  some  financial  difficulty. 

"Roughing  It"  In  1872  Roughing  It  appeared  and  was 
welcomed  quite  as  eagerly  as  The  Innocents  Abroad  had 
been.  This  new  book  was  based  on  his  experiences  in  the 
West,  and  to  many  readers  it  is  more  entertaining  than 
The  Innocents  Abroad,  mainly  because  it  is  more  thoroughly 
American  in  subject-matter  and  treatment.  To  protect  his 
rights  of  publication  in  this  new  volume,  Mark  Twain  made 
a  trip  to  England.  He  had  some  notion  also  of  gathering 
material  for  a  new  book  on  the  English  people ;  but  when  he 
was  treated  so  cordially  and  honored  so  signally  by  them, 
ha  gave  up  the  idea,  confessing  that  he  could  not  bring 
himself  to  dishonor  their  hospitality  by  exploiting  them  in  a 
humorous  book. 

"  The  Gilded  Age"  On  his  return  to  America  he  collab 
orated  with  Charles  Dudley  Warner  in  the  production  of  a 
novel  called  The  Gilded  Age  (1873),  in  which  Warner  did 
the  romance,  and  Mark  Twain  drew  the  characters,  model 
ing  them  mostly  from  the  members  of  his  own  family.  The 
character  of  Colonel  Mulberry  Sellers,  the  dreamer  and 
idealist,  drawn  from  James  Lampton,  his-  maternal  uncle,  is 
one  of  the  most  magnetic  and  original  of  all  Mark  Twain's 
creations.  Colonel  Sellers  was  later  made  the  central  figure 
in  a  successful  play. 

"Tom  Sawyer"  and  "Huckleberry  Finn."  After  another 
trip  to  London  in  which  he  registered  a  signal  triumph  as. 


328 


History  of  American  Literature 


a  lecturer,  Mark  Twain  began  the  composition  of  a  new 
book  which  was  to  surpass  in  popularity  anything  he  had 
yet  done.  This  was  the  wonderful  story  of  boy  life  on  the 


MARK  TWAIN  AT  HIS  OLD  HOME  IN  HANNIBAL,  MISSOURI 

Mississippi,  based  on  his  own  experiences  and  those  of 
several  of  his  companions  in  the  old  days  at  Hannibal, 
Missouri.  Other  work  interrupted  him  before  he  com 
pleted  the  task,  however,  and  it  was  not  until  1876  that 
Tom  Sawyer  made  its  appearance.  This  book  and  The 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         329 

Adventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn  (1884),  with  which  it  is  usually 
bracketed,  are,  according  to  the  consensus  of  opinion,  the 
finest  creative  achievement  of  Mark  Twain's  genius.  Tom 
is  the  typical  American  boy  —  bad  ajid  yet  not  too  bad  to 
be  likable,  rough  and  ready,  shrewd,  courageous,  sincere, 
genuine.  His  story  is  so  realistically  told  that  many 
persons  believe  that  the  hero  actually  lived  through  the 
adventures  described.  Huckleberry  Finn  is  a  poor  outcast 
from  the  very  lowest  stratum  of  society,  but  he  had  a  tender 
heart  and  a  pure  soul  wrapped  in  his  unkempt  and  hardened 
little  body.  The  book  is  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  realism 
in  modern  literature.  It  gives  us  a  faithful  presentation  of 
the  mid-century  life  on  the  Mississippi,  the  scenes  coming 
on  in  rapid  succession  like  a  vivid  panorama  moving  before 
our  very  eyes.  There  is  nothing  unnatural  or  accidental, 
nothing  romantic,  but  all  appears  to  be  just  as  it  is  in  real 
life.  This  book,  together  with  Tom  Sawyer  and  Life  on  the 
Mississippi,  gives  us  our  truest  historical  picture  of  the 
vanished  life  on  the  great  inland  waterway.  Huckleberry 
Finn  has  been  singled  out  not  only  as  Mark  Twain's  master 
piece,  but  as  one  of  the  world's  great  books. 

Mark  Twain's  other  important  works.  Among  his  many 
other  volumes,  two  or  three  at  least  must  be  mentioned. 
The  romantic  extravaganza,  A  Connecticut  Yankee  in  King 
Arthur's  Court  (1889),  is  a  humorous  presentation  of  the 
new  democratic  ideals  as  opposed  to  the  ancient  aristoc 
racies  and  monarchical  forms  of  government.  The  Prince 
and  the  Pauper  (1881),  a  delightful  juvenile  romance,  had 
previously  set  forth  something  of  the  same  teaching  in  the 
plot  whereby  a  prince  and  a  pauper  are  made  to  change 
places  in  order  that  each  may  see  how  the  other  half  of  the 
world  lives.  These  two  books  —  together  with  Pudd'nhead 
Wilson  (1894),  a  searching  study  of  negro  slavery  punctu 
ated  with  keen  and  exhilarating  epigrams  as  chapter  head 
ings,  purporting  to  be  maxims  by  the  title  character; 

22 


33°  History  of  American  Literature 

and  Personal  Recollections  of  Joan  of  Arc  (1896),  an  historical 
study  cast  in  memoir  form,  a  powerful  piece  of  writing  and 
the  one  of  all  his  works  that  Mark  Twain  liked  best  —  make 
up  the  more  valuable  of  his  later  productions.  In  most  of 
his  other  works,  particularly  in  the  field  of  literary  criticism, 
he  displays  more  courage  than  good  judgment. 

The  story  of  his  debts.  The  story  of  Mark  Twain's  debts 
is  to  be  placed  with  Sir  Walter  Scott's  very  similar  struggle 
as  one  of  the  two  most  inspiring  examples  of  business 
integrity  recorded  in  modern  literary  history.  Being  him 
self  somewhat  of  a  dreamer,  he  allowed  many  impractical 
enthusiasts  to  enlist  his  aid  in  their  financial  speculations, 
and  he  lost  heavily  in  most  of  these  investments.  At 
last  he  became  involved  in  large  losses  through  a  pub 
lishing  house  with  which  he  was  connected  as  a  partner. 
When  an  assignment  was  forced  upon  the  firm,  Mark 
Twain  gave  up  all  his  own  property,  and  his  wife  also 
generously  put  in  her  patrimony  to  satisfy  the  creditors; 
but  there  was  still  a  large  sum  found  to  be  owing.  Through 
the  bankruptcy  laws  he  might  have  settled  legally  by 
simply  giving  up  all  the  assets  of  the  company,  but  he 
asked  for  time,  saying  that  he  would  pay  dollar  for  dollar 
if  he  lived  to  earn  it.  In  his  sixtieth  year  he  set  himself 
resolutely  to  the  -task  of  molding  his  talents  into  cash 
through  his  writings  and  his  lectures.  In  1895  he  began 
the  memorable  lecture  tour  around  the  world,  beginning  in 
America  and  moving  westward  to  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
India,  Ceylon,  and  South  Africa,  finally  resting  in  Vienna, 
Austria.  This  marvelous  lecture  tour,  perhaps  the  most 
notable  on  record,  netted  him  a  large  sum.  With  this  and 
the  additional  income  from  his  books,  in  two  and  a  half 
years  he  had  paid  every  dollar  of  the  debts  of  his  firm  and 
was  again  a  free  man  with  untarnished  business  honor. 

Honors  heaped  upon  Mark  Twain.  From  a  humble 
beginning  Mark  Twain  had  reached  a  dizzy  height  in  the 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         331 

affectionate  regard  of  his  own  people  and  of  the  world. 
He  was  not  spoiled  by  his  success,  however,  and  he 
refused  to  compromise  himself  by  exploiting  his  popularity 
or  appearing  before  the  public  for  personal  gain.  He  gave 
his  services  freely  for  the  public  good,  but  he  had  a  com 
petency  now,  and  there  was  no  longer  need  for  him  to  pile 
up  money.  He  was  greater  than  kings  and  potentates, 
for  he  commanded  the  affectionate  regard  of  millions  of 
men  through  the  magnetism,  sincerity,  and  uniqueness 
of  his  own  personality.  Missouri,  through  its  state  uni 
versity,  honored  her  famous  son  with  the  degree  of  LL.D., 
and  some  years  later  even  the  conservative  Oxford  Uni 
versity  in  England  conferred  upon  him  her  coveted  degree 
of  Litt.  D. 

He  made  other  voyages  abroad  in  search  rof  recreation 
and  health,  foi*  his  constitution  was  gradually  weakening. 
His  wife  died  in  1903  in  Florence,  Italy,  and  the  blow  was 
a  severe  one  to  Mark  Twain.  He  took  up  his  residence  in 
New  York  City  with  his  one  surviving  .daughter,  and  fought 
bravely  but  ineffectually  against  a  growing  sense  of  loneli 
ness,  bitterness,  and  pessimism.  On  his  seventieth  birthday 
a  great  dinner  was  given  in  his  honor  in  New  York,  and  on 
this  occasion  he  delivered  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  his 
speeches.  In  his  last  years  he  retired  to  Stormfield,  a 
beautiful  home  that  had  been  built  for  him  at  Redding, 
Connecticut,  and  here  he  died,  April  21,  1910,  in  his  seventy- 
fifth  year.  He  was  buried  beside  his  wife  and  three  of  his 
children  in  Elmira,  New  York.1 

Bret  Harte.  Francis  Bret  Harte  (1839-1902)  was  by 
birth  and  training  an  Easterner,  being  born  in  Albany, 
New  York,  August  25,  1839;  but  he  earned  his  reputation 
by  writing  poems  and  stories  dealing  with  the  wild  scenery, 


lMark  Twain,  a  Biography  (1912)  by  Albert  Bigelow  Paine  is  the  author 
itative  life  of  this  author.  Mr.  Paine's  The  Boy's  Life  of  Mark  Twain  (1916) 
is  a_briefer  and  simpler  story  based  on  the  larger  work. 


332  History  of  American  Literature 

conglomerate  life,  and  odd  characters  of  the  mining  districts 
of  California,  and  so  he  is  always  thought  of  as  belonging 
to  the  western  group  of  writers.  Harte  received  only  a 
common-school  education,  the  principal  source  of  his  lit 
erary  training  being  his  parents.  His  father,  a  professor 
of  Greek  in  Albany  College,  was  a  linguist  of  considerable 
attainments,  and  his  mother  a  cultured  woman  who  directed 
her  son's  reading  with  such  judicious  care  that  by  the  time 
he  was  grown  he  was  exceedingly  well  read.  In  1854  he 
went  to  California  and  there  tried  to  earn  a  living  through 
several  small  clerical  and  teaching  positions.  He  finally 
entered  a  newspaper  printing  office  as  a  compositor,  and  by 
dint  of  steady  purpose  and  persistent  effort  at  writing  he 
rose  to  successful  editorial  positions,  first  on  The  Golden  Era 
and  then  on  The  Calif ornian,  a  weekly  paper  to  which  he 
contributed  his  "Condensed  Novels,"  these  being  parodies  on 
popular  works  of  English  and  American  fiction. 

Bret  Harte 's  stories  of  Western  mining  life.  In  1868  The 
Overland  Monthly  was  founded  with  Bret  Harte  as  its  editor. 
The  first  number  appeared  without  any  matter  of  a  dis 
tinctly  local  character;  so  for  the  second  number  the  young 
editor  supplied  the  deficiency  himself  by  writing  his  first 
story  of  mining  life,  "The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp."  The 
proprietor  of  the  magazine  became  dubious  as  to  the  wisdom 
of  printing  such  a  frank  and  novel  presentation  of  a  situation 
so  unusual,  characters  so  rough  and  uncouth,  and  life  in 
such  a  questionable  stratum  of  society.  But  when  the 
editor-author  of  the  story  threatened  to  resign  unless  allowed 
to  exercise  his  own  judgment  unhampered  in  selecting 
matter  for  the  magazine,  the  proprietor  yielded  and  the 
story  appeared  in  its  original  form.  It  provoked  a  good  deal 
of  protest  at  home,  being  characterized  as  indecent,  immod 
est,  improper,  and  unfaithful  in  its  portrayal  of  the  better 
phases  of  Western  life;  but  it  was  warmly  welcomed  in  the 
East  as  the  work  of  an  original  writer  of  great  promise.  The 


FRANCIS   BRET   HARTE 


334  History  of  American  Literature 

editor  of  The  Atlantic  Monthly  begged  for  a  similar  contri 
bution,  and  a  number  of  letters  of  commendation  came 
to  the  author  of  this  new  type  of  story.  "The  Outcasts 
of  Poker  Flat,"  "Higgles,"  and  "Tennessee's  Partner" 
followed,  and  presently  Bret  Harte  had  enough  stories  in 
this  vein  to  make  up  a  volume.  These  stories,  together 
with  a  catchy,  humorous  kind  of  dialect  verse,  of  which 
"The  Heathen  Chinee"  or  "Plain  Language  from  Truthful 
James,"  and  "Jim"  are  typical,  made  Harte  famous  not 
only  in  America  but  in  England  as  well. 

Harte' 's  connection  with  "The  Atlantic  Monthly."  In 
1870,  being  flattered  by  the  applause  of  the  East,  Harte 
went  to  New  York  to  engage  in  writing  for  the  magazines. 
The  Atlantic  Monthly  paid  him  the  munificent  sum  of 
$10,000  for  all  his  work  for  a  year,  and  he  was  probably  at 
that  time  the  best  paid  short-story  writer  in  the  country. 
But  in  spite  of  his  large  earnings  he  became  involved  in 
debt.  To  escape  from  his  difficulties  he  accepted  an  appoint 
ment  in  the  consular  service  and  went  to  Germany  and 
then  to  Glasgow,  Scotland.  Finally  he  settled  in  England, 
where  he  was  even  more  popular  than  he  was  in  America. 
He  became  estranged  from  his  family  and  remained  in 
England  until  his  death  in  1902. 

Harte' s  place  and  influence  in  our  literature.  Harte  wrote 
many  stories  and  poems  imitative  of  his  first  successful 
work,  but  the  promise  of  his  early  output  was  not  realized 
in  his  later  productions.  He  did  not  seem  to  love  the 
country  he  had  so  successfully  exploited  in  his  stories. 
He  was  not  a  great  interpreter  of  the  real  American  spirit, 
as  was  his  early  contemporary  and  colleague,  Mark  Twain, 
but  he  caught  the  spirit  of  the  California  mining  camp  in 
the  gold-fever  days  as  nobody  else  was  able  to  do,  and  he 
has  preserved  for  future  generations  this  small  but  inter 
esting  and  now  completely  vanished  phase  of  American  life. 
He  was  confessedly  a  lover  and  follower  of  Dickens,  and  like 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         335 

him  did  not  hesitate  to  portray  all  sorts  of  low  characters, 
rough  miners,  gamblers,  adventurers,  desperadoes,  and 
unchaste  women,  and  in  each  of  these  he  discovered  that 
element  of  the  human,  that  touch  of  nature  which  after  all 
makes  the  whole  world  kin.  His  range  was  narrow,  but  he 
did  good  work  in  the  local  short  story,  in  which  type  of 
writing  his  influence  has  been  by  no  means  insignificant.1 

Joaquin  Miller.  Cincinnatus  Heine  Miller  (1842-1913), 
better  known  by  his  pen-name  Joaquin  Miller,  was  born  on 
November  10,  1842,  somewhere  on  the  border  line  between 
Ohio  and  Indiana.  He  tells  us  in  the  autobiographical 
sketch  prefixed  to  his  complete  works  that  his  cradle  was  a 
covered  wagon,  one  of  those  "prairie  schooners"  in  which 
his  pioneer  parents  were  making  their  long  journey  west 
ward.  They  settled  for  a  while  in  Indiana  but  finally  decided 
to  push  on  to  Oregon,  a  distance  of  over  three  thousand 
miles,  where  they  made  their  permanent  home.  Joaquin 
had  his  full  share  of  the  hardships  and  adventurous  experi 
ences  that  naturally  fell  to  this  pioneer  family.  Once  he 
was  painfully  wounded  in  a  fight  with  some  unfriendly 
Indians;  an  arrow  pierced  his  face  and  neck  and  almost 
caused  his  death.  But  during  these  years  he  learned  to 
love  the  wild  Western  life  and  the  picturesque  and  beautiful 
things  of  this  wonder  world  of  nature  with  a  passion  which 
made  him  widely  known  as  the  poet  laureate  of  the  Far 
West,  or  as  he  was  still  more  frequently  called,  "The  Poet 
of  the  Sierras." 

'His  wanderings.  As  a  young  adventurer  Miller  went 
from  Oregon  to  California  and  took  passage  for  Boston,  but 
he  stopped  off  at  Nicaragua  on  his  voyage  down  the  Pacific 
and  joined  General  Walker  in  his  romantic  revolutionary 
•expedition  into  that  country.  His  Central  American  experi 
ences  later  found  expression  in  the  long  poem  "Walker  in 


1  The  fullest  life  of  Bret  Harte  is  that  by  H.  C.  Merwin.     The  shorter 
study  by  H.  W.  Boynton  is  more  judicious  if  less  eulogistic. 


336  History  of  American  Literature 

Nicaragua."  Then  he  drifted  back  to  the  coast  of  Oregon, 
spent  a  short  time  at  college,  and  became  a  teacher.  He 
studied  law,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  was  for  a  short 
time  a  district  judge.  He  had  been  writing  a  great  deal  of 
prose  and  verse  during  these  later  years,  but  his  productions 
met  with  little  favor.  The  lure  of  the  mountains  was  ever 
drawing  him  away  from  his  social  and  legal  duties,  and 
when  gold  was  discovered  in  Idaho  and  Montana,  he  left 
all  and  joined  the  stream  of  miners  which  flowed  into  those 
states.  He  accumulated  enough  of  the  precious  dust  to 
build  a  home  for  his  parents  and  purchase  a  newspaper  for 
himself.  At  the  opening  of  the  Civil  War  he  threw  his 
influence  toward  the  peace  party,  and  as  a  result  of  his 
vigorous  editorials  his  paper  was  suppressed.  Again  he 
retired  to  the  mountains  to  live  alone  with  nature  and  to 
write  poetry. 

Miller's  visit  to  England.  About  1870  he  crossed  the 
continent  and  took  passage  from  New  York  to  England. 
He  felt  that  he  could  never  find  an  audience  in  his  own 
country,  for  he  had  already  published  several  thin  volumes 
which  had  attracted  little  or  no  attention  either  in  the 
West,  where  they  were  printed,  or  in  the  East,  where  he 
hoped  to  find  recognition.  In  London  he  lived  a  secluded 
life  until  he  published  at  his  own  expense  a  volume  of 
poems.  This  work  included  an  earlier  poem  on  Joaquin 
Murietta,  a  Mexican  bandit,  from  which  fact  he  was  him 
self  jocularly  called  "Joaquin," — -a  name  which  he  per 
manently  assumed  as  his  pen-name  in  his  next  volume. 
The  seven  poems  in  his  first  volume  caught  the  English  ear 
by  their  novelty  and  vigor  and  unmistakable  evidences  of 
poetical  genius.  The  metrical  crudeness  and  lack  of  literary 
finish  were  everywhere  recognized;  but  the  English  press 
praised  his  work  extravagantly,  and  he  was  enabled  to  bring 
out  his  first  really  important  volume,  Songs  of  the  Sierras, 
in  187 1.  His  own  picturesque  personality  in  his  pioneer  garb, 


JOAQUIN  MILLER  AT  HIS  CALIFORNIA  HOME 


338  History  of  American  Literature 

the  rich  new  experiences  heralded  from  an  unknown  world, 
and  the  varied  and  beautiful  scenery  of  the  great  Rocky 
Mountains  which  formed  the  staple  of  his  poetry,  made 
him  for  a  time  a  sort  of  literary  lion  in  London.  He  was 
invited  to  dine  with  many  notable  persons,  met  such  men 
as  Dickens,  Browning,  Archbishop  Trench,  Moore,  Rosetti, 
and  was  cordially  received  in  clubs  and  private  families. 

His  cabin  near  Washington  City  and  his  lodge  in  California. 
In  spite  of  his  success  in  London,  little  attention  was  paid 
to  him  in  America,  for  in  his  uncouth  Western  garb  he  was 
looked  upon  as  an  unfair  representative  of  American  culture 
and  art.  He  had  to  wait  long  and  patiently  for  an  apprecia 
tive  hearing  in  his  own  country.  For  a  time  he  lived  near 
Washington  City,  building  for  himself  a  log  cabin  on  Stony 
Creek,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  city.  This  cabin  is  still  an 
object  of  interest  to  the  thousands  of  people  who  drive  in 
the  beautiful  park  which  has  since  been  laid  out  there.  He 
finally  purchased  a  mountain-side  of  his  own  in  Oakland, 
California,  in  sight  of  San  Francisco,  and  built  for  himself 
the  lodge  in  which  he  lived  until  his  death  in  1913. 

General  estimate  of  Miller's  work.  Joaquin  Miller  caught 
the  spirit  of  the  Western  mountain  scenery  as  none  who  had 
not  lived  with  it  could  do.  He  is  no  imitator  of  the  European 
bards,  but  an  original  American  poet  who  was  willing  to 
put  down  in  his  «wn  way  what  his  own  eyes  saw  and  his  own 
heart  felt.  He  had  his  limitations  and  his  faults,  but  he 
has  earned  a  secure  place  among  the  poets  who  are  thor 
oughly  American  in  spirit  and  in  subject-matter. 

Eugene  Field.  Eugene  Field  (1850-1895)  was  born  in 
St.  Louis,  Missouri,  September  3,  1850,  and  died  in  Chicago, 
November  4,  1895,  having  just  completed  his  forty-fifth 
year.  He  was  taken  to  New  England  for  his  early  education, 
and  he  finished  what  academic  training  he  had  at  the  Uni 
versity  of  Missouri.  He  sacrificed  his  degree  to  make  a  six 
months'  tour  of  Europe.  At  twenty-three  Field  began  his 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         339 


journalistic  career  as  a  reporter  on  The  St.  Louis  Evening 
Journal,  and  after  working  on  a  number  of  papers  he  rose 


L 


From  a  photograph  taken  by  Max  Platz,  Chicago 
EUGENE  FIELD 

to  a  permanent  position  on  The  Chicago  Daily  News,  in 
which  paper  for  the  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  he  conducted 
a  unique  column  called  "Sharps  and  Flats."  This  was  a 
series  of  miscellanies  in  prose  and  poetry,  covering,  a  wide 
range  of  interests,  by  turns  humorous,  farcical,  grotesque, 
pathetic,  and  serious.  The  material  in  the  '-'Sharps  and 


340  History  of  American  Literature 

Flats"  column  was  largely  local  in  appeal,  and  in  spite  of  its 
cleverness  has  now  naturally  lost  much  of  its  force. 

Field's  books.  In  1890  appeared  two  thin  volumes  of 
Field's  productions  — A  Little  Book  of  Profitable  Tales  and 
A  Little  Book  of  Western  Verse.  From  this  time  on,  his 
popularity  steadily  grew,  although  he  lived  to  enjoy  only 
five  years  of  the  vogue  created  by  the  publication  of  these 
books.  Two  other  volumes,  With  Trumpet  and  Drum  and 
Love  Songs  of  Childhood,  containing  old  and  new  poems, 
appeared  just  before  his  death. 

His  personality.  Eugene  Field  was  possessed  of  a  lovable 
personality. '  He  was  interested  in  children  of  all  classes  and 
was  an  idealist  in  his  home,  where  he  had  a  devoted  wife  and 
eight  children  of  his  own.  He  was  extremely  sympathetic 
toward  animal  life,  companionable  and  magnetic  among 
all  classes  of  people,  full  of  sentiment  and  imaginative 
idealism,  and  yet,  like  many  another  genius,  he  was  erratic, 
extravagant,  unconventional  in  his  habits,  and  obsessed 
with  his  own  peculiar  fads  and  fancies.  His  best  work  was 
his  inimitable  child  verse.  He  has  been  called  "one  of  the 
sweetest  singers  in  American  literature  and  incomparably 
the  noblest  bard  of  childhood."  His  delicate  sentiment, 
imaginative  quality,  and  unconscious  sincerity  lift  his  child 
verse  into  the  realm  of  art,  and  he  is  thus  assured  a  unique 
niche  in  the  American  temple  of  poetic  fame.  His  best 
known  child  pieces  are  "A  Dutch  Lullaby  (Wynken,  Blyn- 
ken,  and  Nod),"  "Little  Boy  Blue,"  "Jest  'Fore  Christmas," 
and  "Seein'  Things  at  Night."  His  two  most  significant 
moods  —  the  imaginatively  sentimental  and  the  pathetic — 
are  illustrated  in  the  "Dutch  Lullaby"  and  "Little  Boy 
Blue."  "In  the  Firelight"  is  an  example  of  childhood 
experience  glorified  through  reminiscence  into  a  noble 
expression  of  faith. 

James  Whitcomb  Riley.  If  poetic  merit  should  be  judged 
merely  by  popularity  with  the  reading  public  and  with 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         341 

lecture  audiences,  James  Whitcomb  Riley  (1849-1916),  "The 
Hoosier  Poet,"  would  undoubtedly  outrank  all  other  Ameri 
can  poets  with  the  possible  single  exception  of  Longfellow. 
He  was  born  in  the  town  of  Greenfield,  Indiana,  October 
7,  1849  (other  dates  from  1851  to  1853  frequently  given  are 
now  held  to  be  incorrect),  and  lived  all  his  life  in  his  native 
state,  his  residence  being  during  his  late  years  on  the  retired 
little  Lockerbie  Street  in  Indianapolis.  As  a  youth  he  is 
described  as  a  delicate  and  slender  lad  with  corn-silk  hair, 
wide  blue  eyes,  large  nose,  and  freckled  face.  But  he  was 
not,  as  one  might  suppose  from  this  description  and  from 
reading  many  of  his  later  dialect  poems,  an  uncouth,' 
poverty-stricken  country  boy.  On  the  contrary,  he  was  the 
son  of  a  well-to-do  lawyer  in  a  moderate  sized  central 
Indiana  town  of  the  mid-nineteenth  century.  He  did  not 
take  full  advantage  of  his  school  opportunities,  however, 
preferring  to  spend  his  time  loitering  around  the  country, 
filling  his  mind  with  the  images  and  experiences  which  he 
was  later  to  enshrine  so  sympathetically  and  truly  in  his 
reminiscent  verse.  » 

Riley' s  wanderings  as  a  sign  painter.  His  tendency 
toward  artistic  expression  early  manifested  itself  in  his 
ability  to  play  by  ear  on  several  musical  instruments  and  in 
his  talent  for  drawing.  At  sixteen  he  learned  the  house- 
and  sign-painting  trade  and  went  about  the  country  for 
two  years  with  several  companions,  practicing  his  vocation. 
Then  he  was  induced  to  try  reading  law  in  his  father's  office 
for  a  time,  but  when,  as  he  declares,  he  found  out  that 
there  were  no  rimes  in  the  law  books,  he  "slipped  out  of 
the  office  one  summer  afternoon  when  all  outdoors  was 
calling  imperiously,  shook  the  last  dusty  premise  from  [his] 
head,  and  was  away."  He  found  an  opening  more  to  his 
taste  at  that  period  of  his  life  with  a  traveling  medicine  man. 
His  duties  were  to  paint  or  draw  the  advertisements,  assist 
the  troupe  of  actors,  remodel  their  songs  and  scenes,  and 


342  History  of  American  Literature 

perhaps  take  part  in  the  acting  and  mimicry  himself,  for 
which,  by  the  way,  he  had  a  decided  talent. 

Riley' s  early  poems:  "The  Ole  Swimmin'  Hole."  He  was 
continually  trying  himself  out  in  original  poems  which  he 
sent  to  local  newspapers.  Once  he  published  "Leonainie," 
a  poem  which  he  pretended  was  signed  "E.  A.  P."  on  the 
flyleaf  of  an  old  volume  owned  by  Edgar  Allan  Poe.  So 
successful  was  the  hoax  that  it  attracted  nation-wide  com 
ment,  many  critics  accepting  the  verses  as  a  genuine  work 
of  Poe's.  A  storm  of  indignant  protest  arose  when  the  trick 
was  discovered,  and  Riley  says  that  as  a  result  he  lost  his 
position  on  The  Anderson  Democrat,  a  local  paper  on  which 
he  was  working  at  the  time.  He  was  immediately  called  to 
join  the  staff  of  The  Indianapolis  Journal,  however,  and  it 
was  in  this  paper  that  he  first  began  the  long  series  of  dialect 
poems  purporting  to  come  from  a  simple  and  unsophisticated 
farmer,  Benj.  F.  Johnson,  of  Boone,  the  original  "Hoosier 
Poet."  Riley  prepared  long  illiterate  letters  explaining 
how  he,  Johnson,  came  to  write  these  poems,  and  how 
the  tears  rolled  down  his  cheeks  sometimes  as  he  wrote. 
"The  Ole  Swimmin'  Hole"  was  the  first  of  the  series  pub 
lished  in  the  Journal  in  1882,  and  in  1883  appeared  Riley's 
first  volume,  The  Ole  Swimmin'  Hole  and  'Leven  More  Poems. 

Riley's  popularity  as  poet  and  public  reader.  Through  a 
long  series  of  years  there  continued  to  flow  from  his  pen 
poem  after  poem  until  he  became  one  of  our  most  volumi 
nous  poets.  The  public  bought  his  books  by  the  hundreds  of 
thousands  and  still  clamored  for  more.  He  was  called  before 
the  public  to  give  readings,  and  he  later  became  one  of  the 
most  popular  entertainers,  vying  for  public  favor  with  Bill 
Nye,  Mark  Twain,  Robert  J.  Burdette,  Eugene  Field,  and 
George  W.  Cable,  with  each  of  whom  he  held  joint  readings. 

Later  honors  accorded  to  Riley.  It  was  a  long  time  before 
Riley  was  recognized  by  the  older  and  more  cultured  Eastern 
poets  and  critics,  but  he  finally  won  praise  from  practically 


JAMES   WHITCOMB    RILEY 


344  History  of  American  Literature 

all  of  them.  Longfellow  wrote  him  an  encouraging  letter 
early  in  his  career;  Lowell  introduced  him  to  a  New  York 
City  audience  as  a  true  poet;  Holmes,  Howells,  Mark  Twain, 
Joel  Chandler  Harris,  Rudyard  Kipling,  and  scores  of  others 
gave  him  high  praise  for  touching  the  hearts  of  the  people 
with  his  homely  dialect  pieces,  his  child  poems,  and  his  more 
serious  and  elevated  lyrics.  He  was  honored  with  degrees 
by  several  of  our  leading  universities,  and  on  October  7C 
1911,  the  schools  of  Indiana,  and  in  1912,  the  school 
children  of  the  whole  country  celebrated  Riley's  birthday 
with  appropriate  exercises.  He  died  July  22,  1916. 

William  Vaughn  Moody.  William  Vaughn  Moody  (1869- 
1910)  is  as  yet  far  from  being  a  widely  known  poet,  and  per 
haps  he  will  never  be  a  widely  popular  one;  but  like  Sidney 
Lanier  he  will  no  doubt  have  a  steady  growth  of  fame,  and 
in  the  estimation  of  those  who  are  prepared  to  recognize 
his  artistic  work  in  the  subtle  metrical  harmonies  and  the 
deeper  interpretative  thought  of  the  modern  world,  he  will 
surely  take  his  place  as  one  of  our  major  American  poets. 
He  has  done  creditable  work  in  literary  criticism  and  the 
history  of  literature,  and  creative  work  in  the  pure  lyric,  in 
the  poetic  drama,  and  in  the  prose  or  acting  drama;  and 
although  he  died  before  reaching  the  full  development  of 
his  genius,  he  accomplished  enough  to  make  him  the  most 
important  of  the  younger  poets  of  America. 

Moody  s  education.  He  was  born  at  Spencer,  Indiana, 
July  8,  1869.  About  three  years  after  his  birth  his  parents 
moved  to  New  Albany  on  the  Ohio  River.  Here  he  grew 
into  young  manhood  only  to  be  doubly  orphaned  by  the 
death  of  his  mother  when  he  was  fifteen  and  of  his  father  two 
years  later.  Left  to  his  own  resources  at  this  immature  age, 
he  determined  to  secure  for  himself  the  best  possible  educa 
tion.  He  taught  school  for  a  while  near  New  Albany,  and 
then  went  to  New  York  to  become  an  assistant  teacher  in  an 
academy  where  he  could  himself  obtain  further  instruction. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         345 


WILLIAM  VAUGHN   MOODY 

After  a  little  time  Moody  entered  Harvard  University  and 
continued  his  undergraduate  work  there  for  four  years.  He 
then  went  abroad  as  a  tutor  in  a  private  family. 

Moody  as  teacher  and  poet.     After  a  memorable  year  in 
23 


346  History  of  American  Literature 

Europe,  he  returned  to  Harvard  and  entered  upon  graduate 
work.  Two  years  later,  in  1894,  he  was  graduated  with  the 
Master's  degree,  and  the  next  year  he  became  an  instructor 
in  English  in  the  University  of  Chicago.  With  numerous 
vacation  intermissions  he  continued  in  the  work  of  teaching 
until  1902,  when  he  permanently  relinquished  his  professional 
position  to  devote  himself  to  creative  writing.  During  the 
years  spent  in  Chicago  he  made  several  trips  abroad  and  a 
number  of  bicycle  and  walking  tours  in  his  own  country 
with  friends.  He  loved  outdoor  life,  and  had  an  insatiable 
desire  to  mix  with  all  classes  of  people  and  thus  see  life  at 
all  sorts  of  angles.  His  friendships  were  important  to  him, 
and  no  man  perhaps  ever  had  more  devoted  and  intimate 
companions.  In  collaboration  with  Professor  Robert  M. 
Lovett,  he  prepared  a  textbook  on  the  history  of  English 
literature,  and  the  success  of  this  volume,  and  of  several 
other  books  which  he  edited  for  school  use,  enabled  him  to 
carry  out  his  long-cherished  design  of  giving  up  entirely 
his  work  in  the  classroom. 

Moody 's  better  poems.  He  had  been  contributing  poems 
to  the  best  magazines  since  his  Harvard  University  days, 
but  it  was  not  until  toward  the  close  of  the  nineties  that  he 
began  to  find  his  individual  note.  In  1900  he  contributed 
to  Scribner's  Magazine  what  he  considered  his  best  lyric, — 
namely,  "Gloucester  Moors."  Among  his  other  distinc 
tive  poems  are  "The  Brute,"  a  poem  after  the  manner  of 
Kipling,  on  machinery  and  its  effects  on  modern  life;  "The 
Menagerie,"  a  delightful  Browning-like  treatment  of  the 
theme  of  evolution  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  half-drunken 
man  fresh  from  the  menagerie  of  a  circus;  "On  a  Soldier 
Fallen  in  the  Philippines"  and  "An  Ode  in  Time  of  Hesita 
tion,"  passionate  outcries  against  American  imperialism; 
and  "The  Daguerreotype,"  a  wonderful  tribute  to  the 
memory  of  his  mother.  Professor  John  M.  Manly,  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  says  that  this  last  poem  is  "so 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         347 

deep  of  thought,  so  full  of  poignant  feeling  and  clairvoyant 
vision,  so  wrought  of  passionate  beauty  that  I  know  not 
where  to  look  for  another  tribute  from  any  poet  to  his 
mother  that  equals  it." 

His  poetic  dramas.  Moody 's  most  ambitious  work  was 
his  unfinished  trilogy  of  poetic  dramas,  "The  Fire-bringer, " 
"The  Masque  of  Judgment,"  and  "The  Death  of  Eve." 
The  last,  which  was  to  round  out  and  complete  the  series, 
is  left  in  fragmentary  form,  but  the  final  theme  is  more  or 
less  adequately  treated  in  the  blank  verse  poem  of  the 
same  title.  There  is  a  wonderful  array  of  fine  poetry  here, 
but  the  number  of  readers  who  can  fully  appreciate  the 
quality  of  Moody's  art  is  unfortunately  limited.  Professor 
Manly  says  that  Moody's  poetry  even  in  its  simplest  forms 
does  not  always  reveal  its  meaning  to  the  careless  and  casual 
reader,  and  most  young  readers  will  find  these  dramas  to 
be  a  severe  test  upon  their  intellectual  and  interpretative 
powers.  But  such  poetry  has  in  it  lasting  qualities  and 
will  always  repay  the  student  for  his  efforts  to  comprehend 
and  appreciate  it.  Some  of  Moody's  finest  lyrics,  too,  are 
imbedded  in  these  blank  verse  dramas. 

His  acting  plays.  The  third  type  of  writing  in  which 
Moody  succeeded  admirably  was  that  of  the  prose  or  acting 
drama.  "The  Great  Divide"  is  perhaps  the  most  original 
and  successful  native  play  produced  on  the  American  stage 
within  the  past  quarter  century.  "The  Faith  Healer"  was 
not  so  popular  with  the  playgoing  public,  but  it  is  a  com 
position  of  wonderful  literary  appeal,  and  if  not  so  good  as 
an  acting  play,  is  certainly  worthy  of  remembrance  as  a 
literary  drama. 

Moody's  premature  death:  Professor  Manly' s  estimate.  In 
spite  of  his  outdoor  habits  and  simple'  living  Moody's 
health  failed  in  1909,  and  after  a  few  months  of  happiness 
in  his  marriage  with  Harriet  V.  Brainerd,  a  woman  whose 
companionship  had  meant  much  to  him  for  several  years 


348  History  of  American  Literature 

preceding  their  marriage,  he  succumbed  on  October  17, 1910, 
cut  off,  as  it  were,  in  the  full  flush  of  his  genius.  Shortly 
after  Moody 's  death  Professor  Manly  prepared  the  standard 
edition  of  his  poems  and  dramas  with  an  excellent  introduc 
tion,  in  which  he  admirably  epitomizes  the  forceful  qualities 
of  this  new  poet's  work  in  these  words:  "Moody's  poetry, 
whether  due  to  a  direct  impulse  from  life  or  suggested, 
like  'The  Dialogue  in  Purgatory'  and  The  Fountain'  and 
Thamuz,'  by  literature,  is  notable  for  its  freedom  from 
response  to  the  obvious,  the  trivial,  the  merely  pretty. 
This  is,  no  doubt,  one  reason  why,  for  all  his  rich  and  various 
melody,  his  wealth  of  fresh  and  vivid  imagery,  his  modernity, 
his  worship  of  beauty  and  love,  his  depth  of  spiritual  emotion, 
he  is  not  popular,  is  indeed  hardly  remembered  by  any 
except  those  to  whom  poetry  is  not  an  idle  pastime,  but  a 
passion ;  for  the  idler  wants  art  in  all  its  forms  to  be  obvious 
and  trivial  and  pretty.  Moody's  themes  are  often  the 
common  themes  of  poetry:  love,  patriotism,  human  suffering, 
God,  and  the  soul.  But  he  sees  them  ever  from  a  new 
angle,  he  finds  in  them  new  significance,  he  mingles  them 
with  unaccustomed  but  predestined  associations.  His  vision 
and  feeling  are  not  simple,  but  interwoven  with  rich  threads 
of  reflection  and  transmuting  emotion." 

OTHER    WESTERN    POETS 

Introductory  Statement.  Among  the  more  important 
remaining  Western  poets  are  John  Hay,  author  of  Pike 
County  Ballads;  and  Edward  Rowland  »Sill,  of  California. 
The  more  modern  group  of  the  so-called  "New  Poetry" 
writers  may  be  represented  by  Edgar  Lee  Masters  and  Carl 
Sandburg,  both  of  Chicago;  Vachel  Lindsay,  of  Springfield, 
Illinois;  and  John  Gould  Fletcher,  of  Little  Rock,  Arkansas. 

John  Hay.  John  Hay  (1838-1905)  is  probably  thought  of 
more  frequently  as  a  diplomat  and  a  statesman  than  as  a 
literary  man,  but  the  time  may  come  when  his  fame  will 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         349 

rest  more  surely  on  his  literary  productions  than  on  his 
political  achievements.  He  was  born  and  reared  in  Indiana, 
but  he  practiced  law  in  Springfield,  Illinois,  the  home  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  and  he  is  thought  of  as  belonging  to  the 
last-named  state.  President  Lincoln  appointed  the  young 
lawyer  to  be  his  private  secretary  in  1861,  and  the  remainder 
of  Hay's  life  was  spent  largely  in  public  service  of  one  kind 
or  another.  He  was  for  a  number  of  years  attached  to 
various  diplomatic  posts  abroad,  the  most  important  being 
the  ambassadorship  to  England  under  President  McKinley. 
Finally  Hay  was  called  to  America  to  become  Secretary  of 
State  under  President  McKinley,  and  in  this  position  he 
rendered  very  valuable  service  to  the  nation  during  the 
Boxer  uprising  in  China.  Hay's  literary  productions  include 
Pike  County  Ballads  (1871);  Castilian  Days  (1871),  a  sort 
of  Spanish  sketch  book  which  grew  out  of  its  author's 
experiences  in  the  diplomatic  service  at  Madrid;  and  The 
Bread-Winners  (1883),  a  novel  which  he  published  anony 
mously  for  fear  that  his  acknowledgment  of  its  authorship 
might  affect  unfavorably  his  influence  and  service  as  a  public 
man.  The  ballads  were  first  published  in  some  obscure 
Western  paper,  but  they  also  appeared  later  in  The  New  York 
Tribune,  when  Hay,  for  a  brief  period  during  his  young  man 
hood,  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of  that  paper.  They  were 
rough-hewn  dialect  ballads  dealing  with  the  pioneer  life 
of  the  Middle  West.  Their  coarse  and  uncouth  realism  in 
thought  and  language,  their  embodiment  of  the  humorous 
and  the  heroic  ideals  of  the  typical  Westerner,  the  rawest 
of  whom  was  said  to  hail  from  Pike  County,  Missouri, 
struck  a  quick  response  in  the  public  esteem,  and  these 
six  short  ballads  of  John  Hay's  are  today  far  more  widely 
known  than  any  of  his  purer  and  by  him  more  highly  es 
teemed  lyric  verse.  "Jim  Bludso  of  the  Prairie  Belle"  and 
"Little  Breeches"  are  the  most  popular  of  the  ballads, 
though  the  others  are  made  from  exactly  the  same  bolt  of 


3 so  History  of  American  Literature 

homespun  and  are  almost  equally  good.  Humor,  sym 
pathy,  courage,  independence,  heroism  are  the  chief  char- 
actersties,  though  there  is  also  a  note  of  pathos.  The  story 
of  the  heroic  pilot  who  held  the  nose  of  the  burning  ' '  Prairie 
Belle,"  a  Mississippi  steamer,  to  the  bank  until  all  her 
passengers  were  safely  landed,  losing  his  own  life  in  the 
event,  has  moved  many  a  reader  to  tears.  The  pathos  is 
evident  in  the  last  stanza. 

He  weren't  no  saint,  — but  at  jedgment 

I  'd  run  my  chance  with  Jim, 
'Longside  of  some  pious  gentlemen 

That  wouldn't  shook  hands  with  him. 
He  seen  his  duty,  a  dead-sure  thing,  — 

And  went  for  it  thar  and  then ; 
And  Christ  ain't  a-going  to  be  too  hard 

On  a  man  that  died  for  men. 

Edward  Rowland  Sill.  Though  born  in  Massachusetts 
and  educated  at  Yale,  Edward  Rowland  Sill  (1841-1887) 
moved  to  the  Far  West  to  engage  in  business  (1861-1866). 
He  went  back  to  the  East  to  study  for  the  ministry,  but 
became  a  teacher,  locating  first  in  an  academy  in  Ohio  and 
later  in  the  Oakland  High  School  in  California,  and  then 
(1874-1882)  he  accepted  the  position  of  professor  of  English 
literature  in  the  University  of  California  at  Berkeley. 
He  finally  retired  and  returned  to  Ohio  to  devote  himself 
to  literature  but  died  within  a  few  years.  His  successive 
shifts  make  him  a  kind  of  shuttle  between  the  East  and  the 
West;  but  he  did  his  best  work  in  the  West,  so  that  he  may 
fairly  be  called  a  Western  writer.  In  fact,  the  greater  part 
of  his  poetry  is  based  on  Western  themes;  in  many  of 
his  shorter  poems  there  are  evidences  of  this  in  both 
title  and  treatment,  and  "The  Hermitage,"  his  longest 
poem,  is  a  magnificent  panorama  of  the  beautiful  scenery 
of  coast  and  mountain  and  stream  and  lake  in  the  wonder 
land  of  the  West. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         351 

Let  me  arise,  and  away 

To  the  land  that  guards  the  dying  day, 

Whose  burning  tear,  the  evening-star, 

Drops  silently  to  the  wave  afar; 

The  land  where  summers  never  cease 

Their  sunny  psalm  of  light  and  peace, 

Whose  moonlight,  poured  for  years  untold, 

Has  drifted  down  in  dust  of  gold ; 

Whose  morning  splendors,  fallen  in  showers, 

Leave  ceaseless  sunrise  in  the  flowers. 

The  purity  and  sweetness  of  Sill's  language,  the  sureness 
and  sanity  of  his  moral  insight,  and  the  epigrammatic 
quality  of  some  of  his  best  poems,  notably  "The  Fool's 
Prayer,"  will  undoubtedly  give  long  life  to  his  work.  He 
died  when  he  was  just  reaching  his  maturity  as  a  poet,  and 
while  his  achievement  is  notable  even  as  it  is,  there  is  little 
doubt  but  that,  had  he  lived,  Sill  would  have  given  the  world 
a  still  greater  body  of  worthy  poetry.  His  work  should  be 
better  known  than  it  is.  Such  poems  as  "The  Fool's 
Prayer,"  "Opportunity,"  "The  Contrast,"  "Life,"  "On 
Second  Thought,"  "Tempted"  will  prove  to  be  extremely 
stimulating  and  inspiring  to  thoughtful  young  readers  as 
well  as  to  older  ones.  We  reproduce  one  of  these  epigram 
matic  poems  as  well  worth  committing  to  memory. 

LIFE 

Forenoon  and  afternoon  and  night, —  Forenoon, 
And  afternoon,  and  night, —  Forenoon,  and  —  what! 
The  empty  song  repeats  itself.     No  more? 
Yea,  that  is  Life:   make  this  forenoon  sublime, 
This  afternoon  a  psalm,  this  night  a  prayer, 
And  Time  is  conquered,  and  thy  crown  is  won. 

Minor  poets.  We  can  only  give  the  names  of  a  few  of 
the  minor  poets  of  the  West:  John  James  Piatt  (1835-), 
of  Indiana,  associated  with  W.  D.  Howells  in  their  first 
volume,  Poems  of  Two  Friends  (1860),  and  the  author  of 
several  other  volumes  of  verse;  Maurice  Thompson  (1844- 
1901),  of  Indiana,  author  of  many  lyrics,  but  better  known 


352 


History  of  American  Literature 


as  a  novelist;  Will  Carleton  (1845-1912),  of  Michigan, 
author  of  many  popular  and  sentimental  ballads  of  no  very 
high  literary  value,  such  as  "Betsy  and  I  Are  Out"  and 
"Over  the  Hill  to  the  Poor  House";  John  Vance  Cheney 
(1848-),  born  in  the  state  of  New  York,  but  associated  with 
the  Pacific  slope,  writer  of  excellent  lyric  verse;  Edwin 
Markham  (1852-),  of  Oregon,  famous  as  the  author  of 


After  the  painting  by  Jean  Francois  Millet 
THE  MAN  WITH   THE   HOE 

"The  Man  with  the  Hoe";  Sara  Teasdale  (1884-)  (Mrs. 
Ernst  B.  Filsinger  since  1914),  of  St.  Louis,  one  of  the 
most  skilful  and  artistic  of  recent  lyrists,  author  of  Sonnets 
to  Duse  and  Other  Poems  (1907),  Helen  of  Troy  and  Other 
Poems  (1911),  Rivers  to  the  Sea  (1915),  and  Love  Poems,  this 
last  being  awarded  the  Pulitzer  prize  in  the  School  of  Jour 
nalism,  Columbia  University,  as  the  best  poetical  contribu 
tion  for  the  year  1918;  and  Howard  Mumford  Jones  (1892-), 
of  Wisconsin,  now  professor  of  English  in  the  University  of 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         353 

Montana,  author  of  a  metrical  translation  of  Heine's  North 
Sea  (1916),  ''The  Convocation  Ode"  (Chicago  University, 
1915),  and  Gargoyles  (1918),  a  volume  of  somewhat  humor 
ously,  not  to  say  cynically,  grotesque  and  yet  fluent  and 
vigorous  poetry. 

Edwin  Markham's  "The  Man  with  the  Hoe."  Perhaps 
of  all  these  Edwin  Markham  has  reached  the  widest  public. 
His  style  at  its  best  is  somewhat  rhetorical  and  his  lines 
sometimes  become  rather  flat  and  prosy,  especially  when 
he  attempts  to  convey  his  moral  and  socialistic  teachings 
through  conventional  poetical  mediums.  "The  Man  with 
the  Hoe,"  inspired  by  Millet's  famous  picture  of  this  title, 
is  the  best  example  of  Markham's  highly  emotional  and 
rhetorical  verse.  In  its  impassioned  interpretation  of  the 
cause  of  the  laboring  classes,  this  poem  has  been  hailed  as 
"the  battle-cry  of  the  next  thousand  years." 

THE   MAN   WITH  THE   HOE 
Bowed  by  the  weight  of  centuries,  he  leans 
Upon  his  hoe  and  gazes  on  the  ground, 
The  emptiness  of  ages  in  his  face 
And  on  his  back  the  burden  of  the  world. 
Who  made  him  dead  to  rapture  and  despair, 
A  thing  that  grieves  not  and  that  never  hopes, 
Stolid  and  stunned,  a  brother  to  the  ox? 
Who  loosened  and  let  down  this  brutal  jaw? 
Whose  was  the  hand  that  slanted  back  this  brow? 
Whose  breath  blew  out  the  light  within  this  brain? 

Is  this  the  Thing  the  Lord  God  made  and  gave 
To  have  dominion  over  sea  and  land; 
.  To  trace  the  stars  and  search  the  heavens  for  power; 
To  feel  the  passion  of  Eternity? 
Is  this  the  dream  He  dreamed  who  shaped  the  suns 
And  marked  their  ways  upon  the  ancient  deep? 
Down  all  the  caverns  of  Hell  to  their  last  gulf 
There  is  no  shape  more  terrible  than  this — 
More  tongued  with  censure  of  the  world's  blind  greed — 
More  filled  with  signs  and  portents  for  the  soul — 
More  fraught  with  menace  to  the  universe. 


354  History  of  American  Literature 

What  gulfs  between  him  and  the  seraphim! 
Slave  of  the  wheel  of  labor,  what  to  him 
Are  Plato  and  the  swing  of  Pleiades? 
What  the  long  reaches  of  the  peaks  of  song, 
The  rift  of  dawn,  the  reddening  of  the  rose? 
Through  this  dread  shape  the  suffering  ages  look; 
Time's  tragedy  is  in  that  aching  stoop; 
Through  this  dread  shape  humanity  betrayed, 
Plundered,  profaned  and  disinherited, 
Cries  protest  to  the  judges  of  the  world, 
A  protest  that  is  also  prophecy. 

O  masters,  lords  and  rulers  in  all  lands, 

Is  this  the  handiwork  you  give  to  God, 

This  monstrous  thing,  distorted  and  soul-quenched? 

How  will  you  ever  straighten  up  this  shape; 

Touch  it  again  with  immortality; 

Give  back  the  upward  looking  and  the  light ; 

Rebuild  in  it  the  music  and  the  dream; 

Make  right  the  immemorial  infamies, 

Perfidious  wrongs,  immedicable  woes? 

O  masters,  lords,  and  rulers  in  all  lands, 
How  will  the  future  reckon  with  this  Man? 
How  answer  his  brute  question  in  that  hour 
When  whirlwinds  of  rebellion  shake  the  world? 
How  will  it  be  with  kingdoms  and  with  kings  — 
With  those  who  shaped  him  to  the  thing  he  is  — 
When  this  dumb  terror  shall  appeal  to  God, 
After  the  silence  of  the  centuries? 


THE   NEW   POETRY   IN   THE   WEST 

Edgar  Lee  Masters.  Among  the  modern  or  "New 
Poetry"  poets  Edgar  Lee  Masters  (1869-)  is,  in  the  opinion 
of  most  critics,  the  most  powerful.  A  descendant  of  an 
old  Virginia  family  of  the  pioneering  type  on  his  father's 
side  and  from  Puritan  stock  on  his  mother's,  he  was  born 
in  Kansas  and  brought  at  an  early  age  into  Illinois.  After 
one  year  at  college  he  began  to  prepare  himself  for  the 
practice  of  law  by  studying  in  his  father's  law  office  at 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group          355 


EDGAR    LEE   MASTERS 

Lewiston,  Illinois,  and  then  moved  to  Chicago  to  improve 
his  fortunes.  He  has  confessed  that  the  music  of  Burns  and 
Shelley  kept  running  through  his  brain,  and  he  could  not 
resist  the  impulse  to  write  poetry.  In  fact,  he  wrote  several 
hundreds  of  poems  in  the  ordinary  verse  forms  before  he 
came  to  write  in  the  new  form  known  as  free- verse.  He 


356  History  of  American  Literature 

felt  that  he  needed  some  new  medium  in  which  to  present 
the  dead  monotony  and  crass  realism  of  Middle  Western 
village  life.  He  makes  Petit,  the  Spoon  River  poet,  confess 
that  he  saw 

Life  all  around  me  here  in  the  village: 
Tragedy,  comedy,  valor  and  truth, 
Courage,  constancy,  heroism,  failure  — 
All  in  the  loom,  and  oh  what  patterns! 

and  that  he  (Petit)  was  utterly  unable  to  express  all  this  in 
the  conventional  verse  forms: 

Seeds  in  a  dry  pod,  tick,  tick,  tick, 
Tick,  tick,  tick,  what  little  iambics, 
While  Homer  and  Whitman  roared  in  the  pines? 

It  was  in  Poetry,  a  Magazine  of  Verse,  founded  at  Chicago 
in  1912,  by  Harriet  Monroe,  that  Mr.  Masters  discovered 
the  new  free- verse,  and  he  recognized  at  once  that  it 
was  exactly  the  medium  which  he  needed.  William  Marion 
Reedy,  of  St.  Louis,  urged  him  to  throw  off  all  con 
ventions  and  write  something  strictly  American  in  form 
and  content,  and  Mr.  Masters  began  to  strike  off  and 
publish  in  Reedy' s  Mirror  (St.  Louis)  those  brilliant  char 
acter  sketches  for  which  he  has  since  become  famous.  In 
1915  he  collected  these  unique  poems  under  the  title  of 
Spoon  River  Anthology.  It  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  say 
that  the  book  created  a  sensation  in  literary  circles.  No 
book  of  poetry  since  Longfellow's  popular  volumes  has  had 
so  wide  a  circulation,  and  none  since  Walt  Whitman's 
Leaves  of  Grass  has  been  more  vigorously  stimulating  or 
shown  more  originality.  Everybody  who  is  interested  in 
recent  literature  has  read  and  talked  about  Spoon  River 
Anthology.  Spoon  River  is  the  fictitious  name  of  a  Middle 
Western  town,  and  the  Anthology  is  supposed  to  be  a 
collection  of  epitaphs  written  upon  the  lives  of  the  inhabi 
tants  who  lie  buried  in  the  cemetery.  In  most  instances 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         357 

the  dead  persons  are  supposed  to  speak  the  real  truth 
about  themselves,  and  thus  the  author  is  permitted  to 
reveal  the  inner  secrets  of  the  whole  fabric  of  life  about 
him.  Not  only  are  the  individuals  portrayed  in  bold  outline 
and  crass  realism,  but  the  life  of  the  entire  village  is  gradu 
ally  reproduced  and  clearly  revealed.  There  are  a  few  family 
groups  and  related  portraits,  and  there  is  frequent  allusion 
reaching  over  from  one  portrait  to  another;  and  when  all 
of  the  more  than  two  hundred  persons  are  before  us,  we 
suddenly  realize  that  we  have  a  complete  cross  section  of 
society  as  it  exists  in  this  Middle  Western  town  of  Spoon 
River.  There  is  no  story,  no  hero,  no  heroine,  no  major 
characters  and  minor  characters,  but  just  the  unvarnished 
truth  about  each  member  of  the  village  society;  and  lo, 
when  we  have  read  all  the  epitaphs,  we  have  a  complete  pict 
ure  of  the  village  before  us.  There  has  been  some  objection 
to  the  book  because  in  it  Mr.  Masters  seems  to  paint  too 
dark  a  picture.  He  reveals  the  ugly  side  of  American  life 
in  all  its  coarseness,  sensuality,  sordidness,  and  hypocrisy. 
He  seems  to  over-emphasize  the  bad  and  to  say  too  little 
about  the  good.  There  is  truth  in  his  realistic  presentation, 
to  be  sure,  but  there  is  another  and  a  better  side  to  human 
nature,  and  those  who  will  read  on  to  the  end  of  Spoon 
River  Anthology  will  find  that  Mr.  Masters  realizes  this. 
Toward  the  close  of  his  book  particularly  he  portrays  an 
unselfish  idealism  and  a  genuine  belief  in  the  essential 
purity  and  aspiration  of  American  life  and  human  nature 
at  large.  Masters  is  often  frank  even  to  vulgarity  and 
brutality,  but  underlying  all  his  apparent  cynicism  is  a  spirit 
of  hopeful  optimism  and  sincere  sympathy.  On  the  whole, 
Spoon  River  Anthology  offers  too  strong  meat  for  young 
readers,  but  now  and  then  a  pure  heart  speaks  in  sincere 
accents  that  young  readers  will  enjoy.  Take  the  following 
picture  of  the  old-maid  school  teacher,  supposed  to  be 
modeled  on  the  poet's  own  early  teacher: 


358  History  of  American  Literature 

EMILY   SPARKS 

WHere  is  my  boy,  my  boy—. 

In  what  far  part  of  the  world? 

The  boy  I  loved  best  of  all  in  the  school?  — 

I,  the  teacher,  the  old  maid,  the  virgin  heart, 

Who  made  them  all  my  children. 

Did  I  know  my  boy  aright, 

Thinking  of  him  as  spirit  aflame, 

Active,  ever  aspiring? 

Oh,  boy,  boy,  for  whom  I  prayed  and  prayed 

In  many  a  watchful  hour  at  night, 

Do  you  remember  the  letter  I  wrote  you 

Of  the  beautiful  love  of  Christ? 

And  whether  you  ever  took  it  or  not, 

My  boy,  wherever  you  are, 

Work  for  your  soul's  sake, 

That  all  the  clay  of  you,  all  of  the  dross  of  you, 

May  yield  to  the  fire  of  you, 

Till  the  fire  is  nothing  but  light ! 

Nothing  but  light! 

And  "Reuben  Pantier"  answers,  beginning  his  story  thus. 

Well,  Emily  Sparks,  your  prayers  were  not  wasted, 

Your  love  was  not  all  in  vain. 

I  owe  whatever  I  was  in  life 

To  your  hope  that  would  not  give  me  up, 

To  your  love  that  saw  me  still  as  good. 

In  his  latest  books,  The  Great  Valley  (1917)  and  Toward 
the  Gulf  (1918),  Mr.  Masters  has  attempted,  with  a  large 
measure  of  success,  to  do  for  the  Central  West,  that  is,  "the 
great  valley"  of  the  Mississippi  as  it  sweeps  "toward  the 
Gulf,"  what  he  did  for  a  single  town  of  this  same  section 
in  Spoon  River  Anthology.  He  has  drunk  deeply  of  the  pure 
stream  of  democracy  as  it  flowed  through  Abraham  Lincoln 
and  Walt  Whitman,  and  as  a  result  his  work  may  be  called 
a  "true  epic  of  American  life." 

Carl    Sandburg.     Carl    Sandburg    (1878-)    reminds    one 
rather  strongly  of  Walt  Whitman.     He  was  born  of  Swedish 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         359 

ancestry  in  Galesburg,  Illinois,  and  has  had  a  varied  experi 
ence  in  many  parts  of  the  West,  working  at  many  jobs  and 
being  thrown  intimately  with  many  sorts  of  toilers.  He 
succeeded  in  getting  a  fairly  good  education,  and  he  has 
been  connected  with  several  of  the  more  recent  socialistic 
movements  in  Wisconsin  and  other  states.  He  is  the  poet 
of  Chicago  in  particular,  just  as  Walt  Whitman  was  of 
Mannahatta,  or  New  York.  He  is  also  the  poet  of  social 
democracy.  His  two  volumes  Chicago  Poems  (1916)  and 
Cornhuskers  (1918),  are  his  chief  contributions  thus  far  to 
the  so-called  New  Poetry.  The  opening  poem  in  this  vol 
ume,  "Chicago,"  is  his  best  known  single  production.  This 
poem  was  first  printed  in  Poetry,  a  Magazine  of  Verse,  in 
1914,  and  was  awarded  a  prize  of  $200  as  the  best  American 
poem  of  the  year.  Its  lines  will  remind  the  student  at 
once  of  Walt  Whitman,  but  there  is  something  new  and 
fresh  here  also;  the  poem  will  also  afford  some  idea  of 
Mr.  Sandburg's  terrific  strength  and  imaginative  power. 

CHICAGO 

Hog  Butcher  for  the  World, 
Tool  Maker,  Stacker  of  Wheat, 

Player  with  Railroads  and  the  Nation's  Freight  Handler; 
Stormy,  husky,  brawling, 
City  of  the  big  shoulders: 
They  tell  me  you  are  wicked  and  I  believe  them,  for  I  have  seen  your 

painted  women  under  the  gas  lamps  luring  the  farm  boys. 
And  they  tell  me  you  are  crooked  and  I  answer:     Yes,  it  is  true  I  have 

seen  the  gunmen  kill  and  go  free  to  kill  again. 
And  they  tell  me  you  are  brutal  and  my  reply  is:     On  the  faces  of 

women  and  children  I  have  seen  the  marks  of  wanton  hunger. 
And  having  answered  so  I  turn  once  more  to  those  who  sneer  at  this 

my  city,  and  I  give  them  back  the  sneer  and  say  to  them: 
Come  and  show  me  another  city  with  lifted  head  singing  so  proud  to  be 

alive  and  coarse  and  strong  and  cunning. 
Flinging  magnetic  curses  amid  the  toil  of  piling  job  on  job,  here  is  a 

tall  bold  slugger  set  vivid  against  the  little  soft  cities; 
Fierce  as  a  dog  with  tongue  lapping  for  action,  cunning  as  a  savage 

pitted  against  the  wilderness, 


360  History  of  American  Literature 

Bareheaded, 
Shoveling, 
Wrecking, 
Planning, 

Building,  breaking,  rebuilding, 

Under  the  smoke,  dust  all  over  his  mouth,  laughing  with  white  teeth, 
Under  the  terrible  burden  of  destiny  laughing  as  a  young  man  laughs, 
Laughing  even  as  an  ignorant  fighter  laughs  who  has  never  lost  a  battle, 
Bragging  and  laughing  that  under  his  wrist  is  the  pulse,  and  under  his 
ribs  the  heart  of  the  people, 

Laughing ! 

Laughing  the  stormy,  husky,  brawling  laughter  of  Youth,  half-naked, 
sweating,  proud  to  be  Hog  Butcher,  Tool  Maker,  Stacker  of 
Wheat,  Player  with  Railroads  and  Freight  Handler  to  the  Nation. 

Cornhuskers  (1918),  Mr.  Sandburg's  latest  book,  is  redolent 
of  country  and  town  in  the  great  corn-growing  section. 
It  is  composed  in  the  same  Whitman-like  type  of  free  verse 
which  made  Chicago  Poems  notable.  "Prairie,"  the  opening 
poem,  is  a  long  series  of  flash-light  pictures  of  rural  and 
urban  life  in  the  great  Middle  West,  and  practically  every 
other  poem  in  the  volume  shouts  or  sings  or  whispers  some 
phase  of  the  throbbing  life  which  Mr.  Sandburg  knows  so 
intimately  and  loves  so  sincerely. 

Vachel  Lindsay.  Another  strikingly  unconventional 
Western  poet  is  Nicholas  Vachel  Lindsay  (1879-),  who 
was  born  in  Springfield,  Illinois,  educated  in  the  high  school 
there  and  at  Hiram  College  in  Ohio,  and  later  studied  art 
at  the  Chicago  Art  Institute  and  the  New  York  School  of 
Art.  After  doing  some  lecturing  in  the  interests  of  the 
Anti-Saloon  League  for  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  settlement  work  in 
New  York,  he  returned  to  Illinois  and  spent  a  year  or  two 
lecturing  in  the  interests  of  the  Anti-Saloon  League.  Then 
in  1909  he  began  his  famous  tramp  from  Illinois  to  New 
Mexico,  preaching,  as  he  said,  "the  gospel  of  beauty"  along 
the  way.  He  sold  copies  of  his  own  verses,  Rhymes  to  be 
Traded  for  Bread  (1912),  and  recited  them  wherever  he  could 
gather  -an  audience.  Later  he  recorded  his  experiences 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         361 

in  a  prose  volume  interspersed  with  poems,  which  he  called 
Adventures  While  Preaching  the  Gospel  of  Beauty  (1914). 
He  repeated  this  experiment  in  other  tramping  excur 
sions.  Lindsay  first  attracted  wide  attention  by  his  poem 
"General  William  Booth  Enters  Heaven,"  which  appeared 
in  Poetry,  a  Magazine  of  Verse,  January,  1913,  and  was 
published  in  a  volume  with  other  poems  in  1914.  His 
second  volume  of  poetry,  The  Congo  and  Other  Poems,  was 
published  in  1915.  He  attempts  to  interpret  American  life, 
particularly  in  the  great  cities  and  in  the  rural  sections  of 
the  Middle  West,  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  average 
citizen  rather  than  from  that  of  the  educated  critic.  Poems 
like  "The  Congo,"  representing  negro  life;  "The  Fireman's 
Ball,"  and  "A  Rhyme  about  an  Electrical  Advertising 
Sign"  come  out  of  his  experiences  in  the  cities,  while  "The 
Santa  Fe  Trail"  and  "An  Indian  Summer  Day  on  the 
Prairie"  are  the  product  of  his  tramps  in  the  West.  One 
striking  peculiarity  of  Lindsay's  poems  is  his  marginal 
glosses  or  notes,  in  which  he  tells  the  reader  exactly  how  to 
read  or  recite  the  verses,  for  he  believes  poetry  for  the 
people  should  be  recited  or  sung  rather  than  merely  silently 
read.  He  conceives  his  setting  exactly  as  a  dramatist 
would  do,  and  gives  full  elocutionary  or  stage  directions  to 
accompany  the  oral  rendition.  He' is  said  to  be  successful 
in  reciting  his  own  productions,  and  of  course  he  wants 
others  to  read  his  poems  exactly  as  he  has  conceived  them. 
Besides  the  work  already  mentioned,  Lindsay  has  written  a 
number  of  good  religious  lyrics,  such  as  "I  Heard  Tmmanuel 
Singing,"  and  some  quaint  children's  poems.  It  may  be 
that  he  will  be  remembered  chiefly  as  an  oddity  or  freak 
in  the  modern  poetical  movement,  but  there  is  no  use 
in  our  denying  the  fact  that  Lindsay  is  possessed  of  an 
unusual  imagination  and  an  elemental  sweep  and  power 
of  expression  which  may  yet  carry  him  far  beyond  his 
contemporaries. 
24 


362  History  of  American  Literature 

John  Gould  Fletcher.  John  Gould  Fletcher  (1886-),  of 
Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  a  graduate  of  Phillips  Academy  and 
a  student  at  Harvard,  and  for  some  years  thereafter  a 
resident  of  London  and  other  European  cities,  belongs  with 
the  imagists  of  England  and  New  England  rather  than  with 
the  more  virile  representatives  of  the  "New  Poetry"  of  the 
West.  He  draws  his  inspiration  from  his  own  personal 
experiences,  however,  as  is  clearly  shown  by  the  series  of 
twenty-five  impressionistic  poems  concerning  his  life  in  his 
father's  home  at  Little  Rock,  all  of  which  are  gathered 
under  the  larger  title  of  "The  Ghosts  of  an  Old  House"  in 
Goblins  and  Pagodas.  Mr.  Fletcher  has  a  clear  grasp  of  the 
latest  theories  of  the  "New  Poetry."  He  goes  about  his 
work  as  a  conscious  artist,  knowing  what  effects  he  wishes 
to  bring  out  and  having  a  marvelous  command  of  the 
language  and  imagery  necessary  to  produce  these  effects. 
He  has  expressed  his  advanced  views  rather  fully  and 
clearly  in  the  prefaces  of  his  three  latest  volumes :  Irradia 
tions —  Sand  and  Spray  (1915),  Goblins  and  Pagodas  (1916), 
and  Japanese  Prints  (1917).  The  following  picture  of  trees 
in  a  wind  storm  will  give  a  good  idea  of  Mr.  Fletcher's 
rich  and  vivid  diction  and  his  striking  imagination. 

IRRADIATIONS   X 

The  trees,  like  great  jade  elephants, 

Chained,  stamp  and  shake  'neath  the  gadflies  of  the  breeze; 

The  trees  lunge  and  plunge,  unruly  elephants: 

The  clouds  are  their  crimson  howdah-canopies, 

The  sunlight  glints  like  the  golden  robe  of  a  Shah. 

Would  I  were  tossed  on  the  wrinkled  backs  of  those  trees. 

MINOR   WESTERN   WRITERS    OF   FICTION 

The  fiction  writers  classified.  There  are  so  many  popular 
and  promising  Western  novelists  and  short-story  writers 
that  it  will  be  necessary  to  select  just  a  few  of  them  as 
typical.  Mark  Twain  and  Bret  Harte  have  already  been 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         363 

treated  above  as  major  writers.  After  these  we  may  take 
General  Lew  Wallace,  Edward  Eggleston,  Hamlin  Garland, 
Frank  Norris,  and  Winston  Churchill  for  brief  treatment, 
and  content  ourselves  with  a  bare  catalogue  of  the  other 
novelists  and  story  writers,  together  with  a  few  of  their 
most  noteworthy  productions. 

Lew  Wallace.  General  Lew  Wallace  (1827-1905),  of 
Indiana,  first  earned  fame  as  a  soldier,  taking  part  in  both 
the  War  with  Mexico  and  the  Civil  War,  where  he  finally 
rose  to  the  rank  of  general.  Just  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  War  with  Mexico,  while  he  was  studying  for  admission 
to  the  bar  at  Indianapolis,  Wallace  read  Prescott's  Conquest 
of  Mexico  and  was  at  once  fired  with  the  ambition  to  write  a 
historical  novel  based  on  the  romantic  background  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  of  the  Aztecs.  Later  his  own  personal 
experiences  in  Mexico  added  to  his  equipment  for  the  task, 
but  it  was  not  until  long  after  the  Civil  War  that  he  finally 
finished  his  first  novel,  The  Fair  God,  a  Tale  of  the  Conquest 
of  Mexico  (1873).  This  book,  though  fairly  well  planned  and 
executed,  attracted  but  little  attention  until  after  the  appear 
ance  of  its  author's  amazingly  popular  religious  romance, 
Ben  Hur,  a  Tale  of  the  Christ  (1880).  This  last  is  said  to 
have  been  the  most  widely  read  novel  that  had  appeared 
since  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  swept  the  country  in  1852.  It  had 
in  it  much  to  commend  it  to  the  American  public:  it  was 
thoroughly  reverent  and  orthodox  in  its  attitude  toward  the 
Christ;  it  was  enthusiastically,  vividly,  and  dramatically 
written;  and  it  satisfied  all  the  demands  for  an  intensely 
exciting  romance  as  well  as  for  historical  information  and 
moral  stimulus.  Critics  have  spoken  in  a  somewhat  slight 
ing  tone  of  the  lack  of  artistic  merit  in  style  and  structure,  of 
the  melodramatic  atmosphere,  and  of  the  pietistic  or  moral 
leanings  of  the  book,  but  such  criticism  has  had  little  effect 
in  deterring  thousands  of  eager  readers  from  turning  again 
and  again  to  the  pages  of  the  romance,  and  other  thousands 


364  History  of  American  Literature 

of  pleased  spectators  from  attending  the  elaborate  drama 
tizations  of  the  novel.  The  Prince  of  India,  or  Why 
Constantinople  Fell  (1893),  did  not  satisfy  the  public  so  well 
as  Ben  Hur  had  done.  In  none  of  his  novels  does  General 
Wallace  represent  American  life.  He  was  fascinated  by 
foreign  historical  themes  with  a  large  romantic  background, 
and  it  must  be  said  that  he  was  hardly  possessed  of  sufficient 
imaginative  power  to  fuse  these  historical  and  romantic 
elements  into  really  great  masterpieces.  His  position  as 
a  writer,  then,  cannot  finally  be  a  high  one,  but  he  deserves 
remembrance  as  one  of  the  many  American  novelists  who 
attracted  very  wide  interest  with  their  popular  historical 
romances  in  the  last  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

Edward  Eggleston.  Edward  Eggleston  (1837-1902)  will 
probably  be  remembered  more  for  his  accurate  portrayal 
of  life  in  the  Middle  West,  particularly  in  Indiana  and 
Minnesota,  than  for  his  purely  literary  excellence.  A 
descendant  of  a  good  Virginia  family,  he  was  born  in  Indiana, 
was  shifted  about  from  place  to  place  after  the  early  death  of 
his  parents,  entered  the  Methodist  ministry  as  a  circuit 
rider  when  he  was  nineteen,  and  gradually  educated  himself 
by  his  voracious  habit  of  reading  history,  biography,  and 
general  literature.  During  all  his  early  life  he  studied  at 
first  hand  the  Hoosier  customs  and  types  of  character  which 
he  was  to  use  so  effectively  in  his  later  realistic  novels. 
The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster  (1871),  first  published  serially  in 
Hearth  and  Home,  was  widely  read.  It  is  not  a  strong 
book  when  examined  from  a  purely  artistic  viewpoint,  but 
because  of  its  humor,  its  coarse  realism,  and  its  sincere 
humanity  and  large  charity,  it  is  irresistibly  attractive  and 
universally  popular,  particularly  among  young  readers. 
Another  book  in  the  same  vein  is  The  Hoosier  Schoolboy 
(1883).  The  End  of  the  World,  a  Love  Story  ( 1 8 7  2)  is  centered 
around  the  sect  of  "Millerites, "  who  taught,  about  1870, 
that  the  end  of  the  world  was  at  hand.  The  scene  of  The 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         365 

Mystery  of  Metropolisville  (1873)  is  laid  in  Minnesota,  and 
is  the  result  of  the  author's  observations  of  life  in  that  state 
during  the  several  years  of  his  residence  there.  The  Cir 
cuit  Rider,  a  Tale  of  the  Heroic  Age  (1874),  deals  with  the 
history  of  Methodism  in  the  Middle  West  in  the  first  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  This  book  is  looked  upon 
almost  as  an  authentic  historic  document,  so  close  to  fact  as 
revealed  by  history  and  by  his  own  personal  experiences  in 
later  years  has  the  novelist  kept.  In  this  book  Eggleston 
reached  his  highest  power.  He  has  portrayed  the  early 
life  in  the  West  with  a  vividness  that  makes  it  very  real  to 
his  readers,  and  he  has  thus  preserved  for  us  the  true  historic 
background  out  of  which  came  such  characters  as  Presidents 
William  Henry  Harrison  and  Abraham  Lincoln.  In  one  of 
Eggleston's  later  works,  The  Graysons,  a  Story  of  Illinois 
(1888),  a  realistic  picture  of  pioneer  life,  Abraham  Lincoln 
actually  appears  as  one  of  the  characters.  During  his 
later  years  Eggleston  became  a  writer  of  popular  histories, 
and  he  was  also  connected  editorially  with  several  religious 
and  literary  journals,  notably  with  The  New  York 
Independent. 

Hamlin  Garland.  In  Hamlin  Garland  (1860-)  we  find 
the  hard  realism  of  the  Middle  West  farm  life  voicing  itself. 
He  knows  his  background  thoroughly,  and  he  portrays  it 
vividly.  The  offspring  of  parents  who  had  the  common 
Western  fever  for  migrating,  he  was  born  in  Wisconsin  and 
carried  along  with  the  family  in  their  wanderings  from 
point  to  point  until  they  settled  somewhat  more  permanently 
in  Iowa.  He  managed  to  acquire  a  fairly  good  education, 
taught  school  in  several  Western  states,  and  later  in  Massa 
chusetts.  He  now  turned  his  hand  to  writing  Western 
stories,  collecting  these  later  in  Main-Traveled  Roads,  Six 
Mississippi  Valley  Stories  (1891),  and  Prairie  Folks,  or 
Pioneer  Life  on  the  Western  Prairies  in  Nine  Stories  (1892). 
He  says  the  entire  series  was  the  result  of  a  summer  vacation 


366  History  of  American  Literature 

visit  to  his  old  home  in  Iowa,  to  his  father's  farm  in  Dakota, 
and  to  his  birthplace  in  Wisconsin.  At  the  time  he  made 
this  visit  he  was  living  in  Boston,  and  he  confesses  that  the 
return  to  the  scenes  of  his  boyhood  started  him  upon  a 
series  of  stories  delineative  of  farm  and  village  life  as  he  knew 
it  and  had  lived  it.  Thus  these  stories  become  a  sort  of 
historical  transcript  of  Garland's  own  experiences,  and  as 
such  they  are  not  only  interesting  narratives,  but  really 
true  and  human  presentations  of  Western  farm  life  in  the 
later  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Mr.  Garland  has 
written  many  longer  stories  also,  but  none  of  them  is  quite 
so  good  in  its  interpretation  of  Western  life  as  are  his  short 
stories.  Rose  of  Butcher's  Coolly  (1895)  and  The  Eagle's 
Heart  (1900)  may  be  mentioned  as  typical  Western  novels. 
One  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  of  Garland's  books  is  his 
autobiography,  A  Son  of  the  Middle  Border  (1917).  It  gives 
a  truthful  and  satisfying  picture  of  life  in  the  Middle  and 
Far  West, —  of  the  whole  of  America,  in  fact, —  and  at  the 
same  time  it  is  as  entertaining  as  a  novel. 

Frank  Norris.  Frank  Norris  (1870-1902)  represents  more 
particularly  the  Far  West,  but  he  is  also  frequently  associated 
with  the  Middle  West.  He  was  born  in  Chicago,  educated  in 
San  Francisco  High  School  and  the  University  of  California, 
studied  at  Harvard,  and  then  went  abroad  to  study  art  at 
Paris.  Later  he  became  special  correspondent  and  editor 
of  San  Francisco  papers,  and  during  the  Spanish-American 
War  he  did  some  good  magazine  work.  He  then  made 
himself  noted  as  the  author  of  fiction  of  the  most  glaringly 
realistic  type.  He  held  the  extreme  view  that  the  novelist 
should  tell  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the 
truth,  no  matter  how  revolting  it  might  be.  McTeague, 
a  Story  of  San  Francisco  (1899)  illustrates  this  strong  type 
of  realism.  But  Norris's  greatest  effort  was  in  the  three 
novels  which  he  planned  to  be  what  he  called  "an  epic  of  the 
wheat."  These  novels  when  completed  were  intended  to 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         367 

portray  the  real  facts  about  the  complex  industrial  and 
social  life  of  America  as  it  revolved  around  the  most  impor 
tant  food  product  of  the  world.  Norris  explained  his  purpose 
in  the  preface  to  the  second  novel.  He  said,  "These  novels, 
while  forming  a  series,  will  be  in  no  way  connected  with 
each  other  save  by  their  relation  to  (i)  the  production, 
(2)  the  distribution,  (3)  the  consumption  of  American  wheat. 
When  complete  they  will  form  the  story  of  a  crop  of  wheat 
from  the  time  of  its  sowing  as  seed  in  California  to  the  time 
of  its  consumption  as  bread  in  a  village  of  Western  Europe. " 
The  novelist  completed  only  The  Octopus,  a  Story  of  Cali 
fornia  (1901),  and  The  Pit,  a  Story  of  Chicago  (1902).  The 
third  novel  he  intended  to  call  The  Wolf,  proposing  to  make 
the  main  incident  center  about  a  famine  in  some  European 
community.  The  Octopus  is  really  an  allegory  dealing  with 
the  railroad  trust,  which,  like  a  giant  octopus,  the  author 
conceives  to  have  its  tentacles  stretched  everywhere  over 
the  land.  He  describes  it  as  "the  leviathan  with  tentacles 
of  steel  clutching  into  the  soil,  the  soulless  Force,  the  iron- 
hearted  Power,  the  Monster,  the  Colossus,  the  Octopus." 
The  Pit  is  the  story  of  a  speculation  or  corner  in  the  Chicago 
wheat  exchange.  These  two  stories  are  powerfully  written, 
and  had  Norris  lived  to  complete  the  trilogy,  he  would 
undoubtedly  have  rounded  out  his  plan  so  as  to  have  made 
this  sequence  one  of  the  most  remarkably  comprehensive 
works  of  modern  fiction.  Even  as  it  stands  his  effort  has 
a  magnificent  imaginative  sweep  and  a  fundamental  artistic 
appeal. 

Winston  Churchill.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether 
Winston  Spencer  Churchill  (1871-)  should  be  classed  with 
the  Western  or  the  New  England  group  of  novelists.  He 
was  born  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  educated  at  an  academy 
in  that  city  and  at  the  United  States  Naval  Academy  at 
Annapolis,  spent  several  years  in  general  journalistic  work 
in  New  York,  and  finally  settled  permanently  in  the  artists' 


368  History  of  American  Literature 

colony  at  Cornish,  New  Hampshire,  just  across  the  Con 
necticut  river  from  the  town  of  Windsor,  Vermont.  Later 
he  entered  politics  in  New  Hampshire  and  became  thoroughly 
identified  with  that  state.  The  scenes  of  some  of  his  novels 
are  laid  in  the  West,  but  the  political  and  social  problem 
novels  of  his  recent  years  deal  mainly  with  conditions  in  the 
East.  All  his  work,  however,  is  more  or  less  general  and 
national  rather  than  local  in  character,  and  on  the  whole 
he  seems  to  belong  with  the  group  of  Western  writers  who 
have  attempted  to  express  in  their  novels  the  broad  national 
or  democratic  ideal  known  as  Americanism.  His  three 
important  historical  novels  are  Richard  Carvel  (1899),  the 
scene  of  which  is  laid  principally  in  Maryland  covering  the 
whole  of  the  Revolutionary  period;  The  Crisis  (1901), 
which  opens  in  St.  Louis  just  before  the  Civil  War  and 
covers  the  whole  of  that  critical  period  in  our  history,  intro 
ducing  Abraham  Lincoln  in  a  rather  large  way;  and  The 
Crossing  (1904),  a  picturesque  narrative  of  "the  crossing  of 
the  Alleghanies"  by  the  early  pioneers,  such  as  Daniel 
Boone  and  his  companions,  the  development  of  the  great 
movement  for  westward  expansion  through  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  and  the  exploring  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark. 
Of  his  other  works  two  are  political  novels  dealing  with 
conditions  in  New  Hampshire:  Coniston  (1906)  portraying 
the  career  of  Jethro  Bass,  a  typical  political  boss  during 
the  administration  of  President  Grant;  and  Mr.  Cr ewe's 
Career  (1908),  a  continuation  of  the  same  theme,  a  search 
ing  satire  on  railroad  domination  of  state  politics.  Two  of 
his  later  works  are  American  social  studies,  turning  largely 
on  marriage  and  business  problems:  A  Modern  Chronicle 
(1910),  a  love  story  opening  in  St.  Louis  and  moving  on 
to  New  York  and  Virginia,  then  back  to  the  starting  point; 
A  Far  Country  (1915),  a  highly  generalized  study  of  the 
rise  of  big  business  methods  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Finally,  The  Inside  of  the  Cup  (1913)  deals  in  a 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:   Western  Group         369 

rather  frank  and  startling  way  with  the  inner  social  workings 
of  a  rich  twentieth-century  American  church.  It  will  be 
observed  that  each  of  these  novels  takes  up  some  big  theme, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  the  treatment  is  broad  and  epic 
in  character  rather  than  narrow  and  personal.  An  attempt 
is  made  to  portray  primarily  some  great  historical,  political, 
or  social  problem,  and  the  characters  and  personal  narrative 
are  made  to  elucidate  the  theme.  The  characters  are  well 
drawn  and  peculiarly  attractive  as  human  beings,  it  is  true, 
and  the  reader  becomes  intensely  interested  in  their  fortunes 
as  the  story  progresses;  but  they  seem  to  be  merely  a  part 
of  the  greater  social  or  national  movement  which  the  author 
portrays  as  sweeping  them  on  or  engulfing  them  in  its 
stream.  The  first  three  of  Churchill's  novels  have  been 
called  historical,  but  in  truth  all  his  books  may  be  called 
historical  or  interpretative  of  American  life  in  a  chronological 
sequence  from  the  Revolution  to  present  times.  These 
eight  novels  are  all  well  worth  reading,  for  Churchill  is  a 
careful  and  painstaking  workman  both  in  the  collect 
ing  and  marshaling  of  his  facts  and  in  his  literary  style. 
Perhaps  younger  readers  should  be  content  at  first  to  take 
up  the  three  earlier  novels  in  their  chronological  order  — 
Richard  Carvel,  The  Crossing,  The  Crisis.  The  first  and 
last  of  these  are  connected  by  the  interesting  device  of 
making  the  heroine  of  the  last,  Virginia  Carvel,  to  appear 
as  the  great-great-granddaughter  of  the  hero  of  the  first. 

Western  women  story  writers.  Among  the  women 
novelists  of  the  West,  the  following  are  the  most  notable: 
Helen  Hunt  Jackson1  (1831-1885),  poet  and  novelist,  author 
of  Ramona  (1884),  a  strong  story  intended  to  arouse  sym 
pathy  for  the  mistreated  Indian,  as  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin 
had  previous^  done  for  the  Southern  negro ;  Mary  Hartwell 
Catherwood  (1847-1902),  of  Ohio,  writer  of  romantic  stories 

1  Miss  Helen  Maria  Fiske,  born  in  Amherst,  Massachusetts,  was  first 
married  to  Captain  Hunt  and  frequently  signed  her  early  works  "H.  H." 
She  later  married  a  Mr.  Jackson  of  Colorado. 


370  History  of  American  Literature 

of  Indian  life  in  the  earlier  period  of  French  settlements  in 
Canada  and  the  Middle  West,  such  as  The  Romance  oj 
Dollard  (1889),  Old  Kaskaskia  (1893),  Lazarre  (1901); 
Mary  Hallock  Foote  (1847-),  writer  of  stories  dealing  with 
primitive  life  in  the  West,  such  as  The  Led  Horse  Claim 
(1883),  Coeur  d'  Alene  (1894);  Octave  Thanet  (1850-),  in 
real  life  Alice  French,  author  of  sympathetic  and  artistic 
short  stories  revealing  life  in  Iowa  and  Arkansas,  as  in 
Knitters  in  the  Sun  (1887),  Stories  of  a  Western  Town  (1893), 
The  Heart  of  Toil  (1898);  Gertrude  Atherton  (1857-),  of 
San  Francisco,  writer  of  novels  dealing  with  life  in  the 
West,  such  as  The  Calif ornians  (1898),  and  also  with  general 
social  and  political  life  in  the  East,  as  in  Patience  Spar- 
hawk  (1897)  and  Senator  North  (1900),  treating  respectively 
of  New  York  and  Washington  society,  and  The  Conqueror 
(1902),  a  historical  romance  with  Alexander  Hamilton  as 
the  chief  figure;  Dorothy  Canfield  (1879-),  now  Mrs.  J.  R. 
Fisher,  born  in  Kansas  and  educated  in  Ohio  State  and 
Columbia  Universities,  author  of  The  Squirrel  Cage  (1912), 
a  novel  which  attacks  the  senseless  education  of  girls  to 
physical  invalidism,  and  The  Bent  Twig  (1915),  an  excellent 
study  of  life  in  a  state  university  of  the  Middle  West; 
and  Kathleen  Norris  (1880-),  of  San  Francisco,  writer  of 
realistic  novels  of  present-day  social  life,  such  as  Mother 
(1911)  and  The  Heart  of  Rachel  (1916). 

Other  Western  novelists.  The  popular  Western  novelists 
include  Maurice  Thompson  (1844-1901),  of  Indiana,  poet, 
essayist,  and  novelist,  author  of  Alice,  of  Old  Vincennes 
(1901),  a  stirring  tale  of  Revolutionary  times  and  one  of  the 
most  widely  read  novels  of  its  decade;  Henry  Blake  Fuller 
(1857-),  of  Chicago,  author  of  realistic  present-day  studies 
in  city  life,  as  in  The  Cliff  Dwellers  (1893),  With  the  Proces 
sion  (1895);  Frederic  Remington  (1861-1909),  painter  of 
Western  pictures  and  writer  of  Western  short  stories,  as 
in  Crooked  Trails  (1898),  Men  with  the  Bark  On  (1900); 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period:    Western  Group         371 

William  Allen  White  (1868-),  of  Kansas,  author  of  The 
Court  of  Boyville  (1899),  a  sequence  of  delightfully  human 
and  playfully  humorous  stories  of  boy  life  in  the  Middle 
West,  and  A  Certain  Rich  Man  (1909),  a  novel  dealing  with 
the  rapid  growth  of  a  Western  town  and  the  making  of  a 
modern  millionaire;  Robert  Herrick  (1868-),  a  professor  in 
the  University  of  Chicago,  author  of  many  searching  and 
somewhat  pessimistic  studies  in  social  life,  particularly  on 
the  marriage  problem,  such  as  The  Common  Lot  (1904), 
Together  (1908);  Charles  D.  Stewart  (1868-),  of  Wisconsin, 
whose  The  Fugitive  Blacksmith  (1905)  and  Partners  of 
Providence  (1907),  portray  Western  life  on  plain  and  river 
with  both  art  and  humor;  Stewart  Edward  White  (1873-), 
of  Michigan,  portray er  of  Western  mining  and  mountaineer 
types,  as  in  The  Claim  Jumpers  (1901),  The  Blazed  Trail 
(1902);  Jack  London  (1876-1916),  of  San  Francisco,  writer 
of  realistic  stories  of  outdoor  adventure  and  animal  life,  as 
in  The  Call  of  the  Wild  (1903),  The  Sea  Wolf  (1904),  White 
Fang  (1907);  and  Newton  Booth  Tarkington  (1869-),  of 
Indiana,  one  of  the  best  of  the  modern  popular  novelists. 
He  is  the  author  of  The  Gentleman  from  Indiana  (1899),  a 
study  of  Hoosier  character;  Monsieur  Beaucaire  (1900)  a 
romantic  story  laid  in  England  a  century  or  more  ago;  The 
Two  Vanrevels  (1902),  a  story  of  mistaken  identity,  the 
scene  being  laid  in  the  Middle  West  of  the  mid-nineteenth 
century;  Cherry  (1903),  a  sprightly  Revolutionary  romance; 
The  Turmoil  (1915),  his  most  ambitious  work,  a  searching 
study  of  modern  business  methods  in  a  big  city;  Penrod 
(1914),  and  Penrod  and  Sam  (1916),  short  stories  presenting 
a  live  American  boy  of  twelve  with  his  companions; 
Seventeen  (1916),  a  delightful  picture  of  an  American  youth 
at  the  impressionable  age  of  seventeen;  and  The  Magnif 
icent  Amber  sons  (1918),  a  story  of  a  wealthy  American 
family  in  a  present-day  midland  town. 


372  History  of  American  Literature 

FINAL  WORDS 

The  present  literary  outlook.  It  is  dangerous  to  enter 
into  any  prophecy  as  to  the  future  of  American  literature 
or  even  as  to  the  permanency  of  the  work  of  those  writers 
who  have  already  gained  a  wide  present-day  fame;  but 
as  we  close  our  brief  survey  of  American  literature,  we  may 
certainly  be  pardoned  if  we  are  somewhat  optimistic  as  to 
our  literary  future.  There  never  was  a  time  when  so  many 
of  our  citizens  were  so  vitally  interested  in  reading  new  and 
old  books,  never  a  time  when  so  many  old  and  new  books 
were  being  printed  and  circulated,  and  never  a  time  when 
so  many  writers  were  experimenting  in  new  artistic  forms 
of  literature  as  at  present.  The  magazines  are  more  and 
more  widely  distributed  among  our  citizenship;  the  weekly 
periodicals  and  the  daily  papers  count  their  subscribers  by 
the  hundreds  of  thousands  and  even  by  millions.  Special 
magazines  dealing  with  poetry,  or  drama,  or  fiction  in  its 
various  forms,  or  criticism,  flourish;  publishers  are  besieged 
with  manuscripts  from  every  nook  and  corner  of  the  land; 
new  writers  are  springing  up  every  day;  and  the  whole 
nation  seems  to  be  gathering  its  strength  and  resources 
for  a  period  of  great  artistic  productivity.  Tjie  material 
wealth  of  our  natign  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  nation 
in  the  world.  This  wealth  brings  the  leisure  necessary  to 
the  development  of  art  and  also  furnishes  the  means  for 
satisfying  the  natural  desire  to  possess  the  productions  of 
art.  Even  the  great  masses  of  the  common  people  every 
where  are  becoming  more  and  more  widely  educated,  so 
that  the  whole  population  is  demanding  a  part  in  the  enjoy 
ment  of  the  art  products  of  the  race. 

Interest  in  poetry.  Fiction  has  held  the  place  of  chief 
interest  during  the  last  quarter  or  even  half  century;  per 
haps  the  novel  and  the  short  story  may  still  be  said  to  flourish 
as  the  favorite  forms  of  popular  art  with  the  great  mass  of 
American  readers.  But  during  the  past  four  or  five  years 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period  373 

the  interest  in  pure  poetry  and  literary  drama  has  increased 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  so  that  at  present,  to  use  Matthew 
Arnold's  statement,  "the  future  of  poetry  is  immense." 
Hundreds  of  new  volumes  of  poems  and  plays  are  coming 
out  every  year.  The  magazines  are  giving  more  and  more 
space  to  these  forms  of  art,  and  even  the  newspapers  are 
reviving  the  "Poets'  Corners"  and  publishing  poems  in 
almost  every  issue.  Thousands  of  our  soldiers  have  been 
trying  in  their  own  way,  often  crude  and  rugged,  it  is  true, 
to  express  the  new  ideas  and  aspirations  surging  through 
their  minds  and  to  record  in  song,  or  rimed  chronicle  at 
least,  the  marvelous  experiences  through  which  they  have 
passed.  There  are  also  many  new  books  of  criticism  and 
comment  on  present-day  poetry  and  drama,  and  these  are 
almost  without  exception  encouraging  as  to  the  future  of 
our  poetry.  Some  critics  think  that  for  the  first  time  in 
our  history  the  great  majority  of  our  poets  are  beginning  to 
reflect  the  real  American  spirit.  The  earlier  poets,  say  these 
critics,  were  mere  imitators  of  various  English  and  foreign 
models.  They  took  their  themes,  their  language,  their 
verse  forms,  their  imagery,  their  inspiration  straight  from 
European  sources.  Whitman  alone  among  the  earlier  poets 
seemed  to  strike  a  peculiarly  original  American  note  in  his 
"barbaric  yawp,  sounding  over  the  roofs  of  the  world." 
He  it  was  who  prophesied  that  there  would  some  day  arise 
a  great  democratic  chorus  of  singers  in  America. 

I  hear  America  singing,  the  varied  carols  I  hear; 

Those  of  mechanics  —  each  one  singing  his,  as  it  should  be,  blithe 
and  strong; 

The  carpenter  singing  his,  as  he  measures  his  plank  or  beam. 

The  mason  singing  his,  as  he  makes  ready  for  work, .  or  leaves  off 
work; 

The  boatman  singing  what  belongs  to  him  in  his  boat  —  the  deck 
hand  singing  on  the  steamboat  deck; 

The  shoemaker  singing  as  he  sits  on  his  bench  —  the  hatter  singing 
as  he  stands; 


374  History  of  American  Literature 

The    wood-cutter's   song  —  the   ploughboy's,    on  his   way  in  the 

morning,  or  at  the  noon  intermission,  or  at  sundown; 
The  delicious  singing  of  the  mother  —  or  of  the  young  wife  at 

work  —  or  of  the  girl  sewing  or  washing — -Each  singing  what 

belongs  to  her,  and  to  none  else; 
The  day  what  belongs  to  the  day  —  At  night,  the  party  of  young 

fellows,  robust,  friendly, 
Singing,  with  open  mouths,  their  strong  melodious  songs. 

To-day  we  are  almost  beginning  to  see  the  fulfilment  of 
this  prophecy.     Our  poets  are  finding  a  more  and  more  dis 
tinctly  American  and  democratic  note. 
Appreciation  of  the  old  and  cordial  reception  of  the  new. 

In  their  enthusiasm  for  the  new,  some  of  our  modern  critics 
have  turned  against  the  old  writers  and  attacked  them  as 
if  the  work  of  the  past  were  worthless  and  contemptible 
in  the  light  of  the  present  advancement  in  art.  But  there 
is  no  need  to  defame  or  decry  our  earlier  productions  in 
order  to  welcome  and  applaud  this  new  type  of  art.  The 
stream  of  literature  is  continuous.  There  are  sweet  waters 
and  soothing  breezes  and  green  trees  and  bright  flowers 
all  along  the  way,  and  everywhere  we  can  find  beauty 
mirrored  in  a  thousand  attractive  forms.  Why  may  we 
not  love  and  cleave  to  the  old,  the  standard  writers,  and 
at  the  same  time  welcome  with  glad  acclaim  the  new?  The 
aim  should  be  to  cultivate  a  sense  of  appreciation  for  good 
art  in  all  ages.  Young  students  particularly  should  strive 
to  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  great  work  of  the 
past  in  order  to  be  able  to  judge  comparatively  the  values 
of  the  more  recent  productions.  It  is  safer  for  them  to 
spend  most  of  their  time  studying  the  outstanding  time- 
tested,  thrice-winnowed  masterpieces  rather  than  to  waste 
precious  moments  floundering  around  in  the  great  mass 
of  unsifted  present-day  productions.  "Every  time  I  hear 
a  new  book  praised,"  said  some  wise  man,  "I  read  an 
old  one." 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period  375 

SELECTED   BIBLIOGRAPHIES 
SUITABLE  FOR  HIGH-SCHOOL   LIBRARIES  AND 

OUTSIDE   READING 
Special  Reference  Books  for  Nineteenth  Century  American  Literature 

(Starred  volumes  are  especially  valuable  for  high-school  libraries.) 
For  General  Reference  books  see  page  40. 

j.  History  and  General  Criticism 
AMERICAN  MEN  OF  LETTERS  (a  series  of  biographies),  Houghton 

Mifflin,  Boston,  various  dates. 

BAKER,  Guide  to  Best  Fiction,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1903. 
BASKERVILL,  Southern  Writers,  2  vols.,  Nashville,  1902,  1911. 
*BLOUNT,  Intensive  Studies  in  American  Literature,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.f 

1914. 

BOWEN,  Makers  of  American  Literature,  Neale,  Richmond,  1908. 
*BROWNELL,  American  Prose  Masters,  Scribner's,  N.  Y.,  1909  (includes 

Cooper,  Hawthorne,  Emerson,  Poe,  Lowell,  James). 
BURTON,  Literary  Leaders  of  America,  Scribner's,  N.  Y.,  1904. 
*CANBY,  The  Short  Story  in  English,  Holt,  N.  Y.,  1909. 
COLLINS,  Studies  in  Poetry  and  Criticism,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1905. 
COOPER,  Some  American  Story-Tellers,  Holt,  N.  Y.,  1911. 
*ERSKINE,  Leading  American  Novelists,  Holt,  N.  Y.,  1910  (includes 

Brown,  Cooper,  Hawthorne,  Simms,  Stowe,  Harte). 
FROTHINGHAM,  Transcendentalism  in  New  England. 
GODDARD,  Studies  in  New  England  Transcendentalism,  Lemcke  and 

Buechner,  1908. 
HALE,  James  Russell  Lowell  and  his  Friends,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston, 

1899. 

HIGGINSON,  Contemporaries,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1899. 
HOWE,  American  Bookmen,  Dodd,  Mead,  N.  Y.,  1898. 
Ho  WELLS,  * Literary  Friends  and  Acquaintance,  Harpers,  N.  Y.,  1900. 
*My  Literary  Passions,  Harpers,  N.  Y.,  1895. 
*  Criticism  and  Fiction,  Harpers,  N.  Y.,  1891. 
LAWTON,  The  New  England  Poets,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1898. 
*LOWELL,  Amy,  Tendencies  in  Modern  American  Poetry,  Macmillan, 

N.  Y.,  1917. 
MOSES,  The  Literature  of  the  South,  Crowell,  N.  Y.,  1910. 

The  American  Dramatists,  Little,  Brown  and  Company,  N.  Y., 
1911. 
ONDERDONK,    History   of  American    Verse    (1610-1897),    McClurg, 

Chicago,  1901. 
*PATTEE,  History  of  American  Literature  Since  1870,  Century,  N.  Y., 


376  History  of  American  Literature 

PAYNE,  W.  M.,  Leading  American  Essayists,  Holt,  N.  Y.,  1910. 

American  Literary  Criticism,  Longmans,  N.  Y.,  1904. 
PHELPS,    The  Advance  of  English  Poetry  in  the  Twentieth  Century, 

Dodd  Mead,  N.  Y.,  1918. 

SLADEN,  Younger  American  Poets  (1830-1800),  Cassell,  N.  Y.,  1891. 
*STEDMAN,  Poets  of  America,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1899. 
SWIFT,  Brook  Farm,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1900. 

Literary  Landmarks  of  Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1903. 
VEDDER,  American  Writers  of  Today,  Silver,  N.  Y.,  1910. 
*VINCENT,  American  Literary  Masters,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1906. 
WHITING,  Boston  and  Concord,  Little,  Brown  and  Company,  N.  Y., 

1911. 
WINTER,  Old  Friends  (Literary  Recollections),  Moffatt,  N.  Y.,  1909. 

2.  Anthologies  and  Selections 

*STEDMAN  and  HUTCHINSON,  Library  of  American  Literature,  Vols.  V. 

to  XL     See  p.  oo. 
*ALDERMAN,  HARRIS,  and  KENT,  Library  of  Southern  Literature,  16  vols., 

Martin  and  Hoyt,  Atlanta,  1907-1913.     Contains  biographical  and 

critical  essays  and  selections. 

*BOYNTON,  American  Poetry,  Scribner's,  N.  Y.,  1918. 
BRONSON,  *  American  Poems,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1912. 

* American  Prose,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1916. 
*PAGE,  Chief  American  Poets,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1905. 
*NEWCOMER,    ANDREWS,    and    HALL,    Three    Centuries   of  American 

Poetry  and  Prose,  Scott  Foresman,  Chicago,  1917. 
CALHOUN  and  MCALARNEY,  Readings  from  American  Literature,  Ginn, 

Boston,  1915. 

CARPENTER,  Selections  from  American  Prose,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1898. 
TRENT,  Southern  Writers,  Macmillan,  N.  Y.,  1905  (contains  selections 

with  brief  biographical  and  critical  sketches). 
RITTENHOUSE,    The   Little   Book    of  American   Poets    (1787-1900}, 

Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1915. 

*The  Little  Book  of  Modern  Poets,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston. 
*MONROE  and  HENDERSON,  The  New  Poetry,  an  Anthology,  Macmillan, 

N.  Y.,   1917   (contains  selections  from  more  than  one  hundred 

modern  poets,  English  and  American). 

*QuiNN,  Representative  American  Plays,  Century,  N.  Y.,  1917. 
*MOSES,  Representative  Plays  by  American  Dramatists,  3  vols.,  Button, 

N.  Y.,  1918-. 


Artistic  or  Creative  Period  377 

j.  A  Few  Novels  Dealing  with  Different  Periods 

Before  the  Civil  War: 

EGGLESTON,  The  Circuit  Rider  (Methodism  in  early  Indiana); 

Roxy  (Tippecanoe  campaign  in  Indiana). 
CHURCHILL,  The  Crossing  (Rogers  and  Clark  Expedition). 
POST,  Smith  Brunt:  A  Story  of  the  Old  Navy  (War  of  1812). 
PYLE,  Within  the  Capes:  A  Sea  Story  (War  of  1812). 
MUNROE,  With  Crockett  and  Bowie  (Texas  about  1835); 

Through  Swamp  and  Glade  (Florida  during  Seminole  War). 
ATHERTON,  Before  the  Gringo  Came  (Early  California  life) ; 

Los  Cerritos  (Southern  California). 
BARR,  Remember  the  Alamo  (Texas  independence). 
EGGLESTON,  The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster  (Indiana  about  1840). 
STOWE,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  (Slavery  question  about  1850). 
Civil  War: 

BENSON,  Who  Goes  There? 
CHURCHILL,  The  Crisis. 
CABLE,  The  Cavalier. 

COOKE,  Hilt  to  Hilt,  Surrey  of  Eagle's  Nest,  Mohun,  etc. 
CRANE,  The  Red  Badge  of  Courage.  - 
FREDERIC,  The  Copperhead  and  Other  Northern  Stories. 
GLASGOW,  The  Battle-Ground. 
JOHNSTON,  The  Long  Roll,  Cease  Firing. 
HARRIS,  Tales  of  the  Home  Folks  in  Peace  and  in  War,  On  the  Wing  of 

Occasion. 

HENTY,  With  Lee  in  Virginia. 
PAGE,  The  Burial  of  the  Guns,  Marse  Chan,  etc. 
OLDHAM,  The  Man  from  Texas. 

TROWBRIDGE,  The  Three  Scouts,  The  Drummer  Boy,  etc. 
Since  the  Civil  War:    Reconstruction,  and  Development  of  the  West 
CABLE,  John  March,  Southerner. 
PAGE,  Red  Rock. 
SEAWELL,  Throckmorton. 
JACKSON,  Ramona  (Indian  question). 

OVERTON,  The  Heritage  of  Unrest  (Indians  in  New  Mexico). 
WISTER,  The  Virginian  (Wyoming). 
GARLAND,  A  Son  of  the  Middle  Border,  etc. 
WHITE,  The  Westerners,  The  Blazed  Trail,  etc. 
MARK  TWAIN,  Roughing.  It,  Life  on  the  Mississippi,   Tom  Sawyer, 

Huckleberry  Finn,  Pudd'n-Head  Wilson,  etc. 


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SUGGESTIONS     FOR     OUTSIDE     READING     AND 

SPECIAL  STUDY   COURSES   IN 

AMERICAN   LITERATURE 

NOTE  TO  TEACHERS.  Since  the  textbook  on  the  history  of 
American  literature  is  to  be  used  largely  as  a  handbook 
or  a  source  of  review  and  general  survey  based  on  the 
firsthand  study  of  the  literature  itself,  the  teacher  will 
necessarily  desire  for  his  students  a  definite  course  of  out 
side  reading  upon  which  reports  and  set  papers  may  be  based. 
Hence  the  following  outline  of  topics  is  presented  merely  as 
suggestive.  The  teacher  will  naturally  modify  the  scope 
or  vary  the  content  of  the  suggested  topics  and  make  addi 
tional  references  and  assignments  to  fit  local  interests, 
local  library  facilities,  and  the  specific  needs  of  the  class 
or  group  of  students  undertaking  the  course.  The  assign 
ments  should  be  made  a  week  or  more  in  advance  of  the 
period  or  periods  set  apart  for  reports.  All  reports  and 
papers  should  be  prepared  for  presentation  to  the  class, 
preferably  by  the  students  themselves,  but  in  any  event 
in  summary  by  the  teacher.  As  far  as  possible  each  student 
should  be  made  to  feel  his  personal  responsibility  in  contrib 
uting  something  definite  to  the  value  of  the  course  for  the 
class  as  a  whole.  Oral  reports  and  free  discussions  are 
extremely  desirable,  and  these  may  be  encouraged  by 
assigning  the  same  topic  to  two  or  more  students.  It  will 
be  unwise  to  spend  any  large  proportion  of  the  high-school 
course  on  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  Periods.  The 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  artistic  or  creative  period  of  American  literature,  and 
naturally  this  period  will  demand  the  major  part  of  the 
high-school  student's  time  and  interest.  In  the  lists  below 

382 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  383 

it  will  be  possible  to  give  only  a  few  suggestions  for  readings 
and  topics  of  discussion  on  the  major  writers  in  the  four 
larger  divisions  of  our  later  writers  as  arranged  in  the 
present  volume.  While  specific  outlines  for  the  minor 
writers  cannot  be  given  here,  these  authors  will  be  found 
to  be  fairly  well  represented  by  selections  in  some  of  the 
anthologies  mentioned  below,  and  bibliographical  references 
may  be  found  in  most  of  the  histories  of  literature  and 
other  general  reference  books.  Moreover,  in  almost  every 
state  of  the  Union  there  are  now  available  books  of  selections 
from  local  authors,  and  these  are  usually  supplied  with 
biographical  and  critical  notes  as  well  as  with  additional 
bibliographical  lists.  The  bibliographies  in  The  Cambridge 
History  of  American  Literature  are  especially  full  and 
scholarly.  The  main  aim  of  the  teacher  in  all  this  work 
should  be  to  arouse  the  student's  interest  in  the  firsthand 
reading  of  the  literature  itself,  as  far  as  possible  in  its  original 
form.  He  should  strive  to  incite  in  the  more  advanced 
students  some  interest  in  a  simple  sort  of  investigative  or 
scholarly  work  in  the  various  fields  of  literature.  The 
development  of  the  reading  habit  should  be,  however,  the 
principal  aim  of  all  elementary  literature  courses.  Encour 
age  the  children  to  buy  books  and  to  circulate  their  privately 
owned  volumes  freely  among  their  classmates.  Insist  that 
the  school  authorities  equip  the  library  with  such  reference 
and  general  reading  books  as  are  essential  to  the  satisfactory 
presentation  of  the  courses  in  literature.  Library  equip 
ment  should  be  considered  at  least  as  of  equal  importance 
with  the  equipment  in  the  science  laboratories. 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  NOTE.  Consult  the  general  and  special 
bibliographies  on  pages  40-43,  85-87,  375~377>  and  also 
the  brief  bibliographical  footnotes  throughout  the  volume. 
As  a  minimum  basis  for  classroom  work  the  high-school 
library  should  have,  in  addition  to  four  or  five  standard 
histories  of  American  literature,  at  least  two  or  more  of 


384  History  of  American  Literature 

the  following  anthologies,  and  in  the  larger  schools  duplicate 
copies  should  be  supplied  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  increased 
number  of  students.  A  copy  of  the  latest  edition  of  Who's 
Who  in  America  should  also  be  provided  for  reference  on 
the  more  recent  writers. 

1.  CAIRNS,    Selections  from    Early   American    Writers,    1607-1800, 
Macmillan,  N.  Y.,   1900. 

Contains  both  prose  and  poetry  reproduced  in  the  original 
form.  Young  students  may  find  some  difficulty  in  reading  the 
early  form  of  the  text,  but  it  will  be  interesting  for  them  to  observe 
the  peculiar  spelling  and  capitalization  and  the  quaint,  old-fashioned 
diction  and  idiom.  The  volume  contains  excellent  biographical 
and  critical  introductions.  It  is  the  best  single-volume  anthology 
on  early  American  writers. 

2.  TRENT  AND  WELLS,  Colonial  Prose  and  Poetry,  3  vols.,  Crowell, 
N.  Y.,  1901. 

These  three  handy  pocket  volumes  are  printed  in  modernized 
text,  and  hence,  though  less  characteristic  of  the  times  in  which 
the  works  were  produced,  are  much  more  easily  intelligible  to  young 
readers.  These  volumes  also  contain  good  introductory  notes. 

3.  STEDMAN  AND  HUTCHINSON,  Library  of  American  Literature,  n 
vols.,  Benjamin,  N.  Y.,  1888-90. 

This  is  the  standard  extensive  collection  of  American  literature. 
The  earlier  selections  are  slightly  modernized,  though  the  original 
spelling  is  largely  retained.  The  illustrations  add  much  interest 
to  the  selections.  Volume  XI  contains  brief  biographical  sketches 
of  American  authors.  If  the  school  library  does  not  possess  this 
set,  perhaps  the  books  can  be  borrowed  for  a  time  either  from  the 
town  library  or  from  some  private  citizen.  Such  books  in  a  private 
citizen's  library  are  usually  more  ornamental  than  useful,  and 
local  civic  pride  will  often  induce  such  citizens  to  present  the 
set  to  the  school  library,  where  the  books  may  become  of  some 
use  to  the  community. 

4.  NEWCOMER,   ANDREWS,   AND   HALL,    Three   Centuries  of  Ameri 
can  Literature,  Scott  Foresman,  Chicago,   1917. 

A  large  volume,  containing  over  eight  hundred  pages  of  double- 
column  matter,  both  prose  and  poetry.  The  most  comprehensive 
of  all  the  one- volume  general  anthologies. 

5.  CALHOUN   AND   MACALARNEY,   Readings  from  American  Litera 
ture,  Ginn,  Boston,  1915. 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  385 

This  is  not  so  comprehensive  as  the  preceding,  volume,  but  it 
contains  much  excellent  material.  The  early  selections  are  printed 
in  modernized  form. 

6.  BRONSON,  American  Poems,  University  of  Chicago  Press,   1912. 

7.  BRONSON,  American  Prose,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1916. 

These  two  companion  volumes  are  well  edited  and  fairly  com 
prehensive.  The  texts  are  scrupulously  accurate.  The  distinctive 
feature  of  the  notes  is  the  large  amount  of  informing  contemporary 
criticism  reprinted  in  them.  Good  bibliographies. 

8.  PAGE,    The    Chief  American    Poets,    Houghton    Mifflin,    Boston, 
1905. 

Valuable  because  of  the  fullness  of  the  selections  from  the  nine 
chief  poets  —  Bryant,  Poe,  Emerson,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Holmes, 
Lowell,  Whitman,  and  Lanier.  The  notes  are  few  but  valuable. 
The  essays  appended  afford  excellent  biographical  and  critical 
summaries.  Bibliographies  especially  full. 

9.  BOYNTON,  American  Poetry,  Scribner's,  N.  Y.,  1918. 

This  is  more  comprehensive  than  Page  and  gives  a  better  sur 
vey  of  our  poetry  as  a  whole.  It  begins  with  Anne  Bradstreet 
and  concludes  with  William  Vaughn  Moody.  The  "Critical 
Comments,"  Part  II,  are  fresh  and  comprehensive.  The  bibli 
ographies  are  reduced  to  the  lowest  terms. 

10.  FOERSTER,  The  Chief  American  Prose  Writers,  Houghton  Mifflin, 
Boston,  1916. 

A  companion  volume  to  Page's  The  Chief  American  Poets,  con 
taining  nine  prose  masters  —  Franklin,  Irving,  Cooper,  Poe, 
Hawthorne,  Emerson,  Thoreau,  Lowell,  Holmes.  Brief  select 
bibliographies  for  each  author,  but  very  few  notes. 

11.  STEDMAN,  An  American  Anthology,  Houghton  Mifflin,  Boston,  1900. 

This  is  the  most  comprehensive  single-volume  anthology  of 
American  poets.  Its  chief  merits  are  its  range  and  variety  of 
material  and  its  particular  emphasis  on  the  minor  poets. 

12.  PAYNE,    Selections  from    American    Literature,    Rand    McNally, 
Chicago,  1919. 

This  is  the  companion  volume  to  the  present  History  of  American 
Literature.  It  contains  selections  from  the  major  writers  of  the 
four  great  geographical  divisions  of  our  country  —  New  York, 
New  England,  the  South,  the  West  —  with  full  notes,  questions, 
and  other  helps  for  high-school  class  work. 


386  History  of  American  Literature 

13.  ALDERMAN    AND    OTHERS,    Library    of   Southern    Literature,    16 
vols.,  Martin  and  Hoyt,  Atlanta,  1907-1913. 

This  set  is  particularly  valuable  for  the  study  of  Southern 
authors,  major  and  minor.  Many  high  schools  in  the  South  will 
probably  have  access  to  this  set  when  they  do  not  possess  the 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson  Library  of  American  Literature.  The 
selections  are  preceded  in  each  case  by  an  essay  written  by  some 
one  who  is  especially  qualified  to  speak  for  the  particular  author. 
The  Analytical  Index  and  the  Reading  Courses  in  Volume  XVI 
are  valuable  as  suggestive  guides  in  planning  reading  courses  for 
high-school  classes  or  literary  clubs. 


I.     COLONIAL  PERIOD 

(The  page  references  following  each  topic  are  to  the  main  treatment  in 
the  present  volumes.) 

A.     SOUTHERN  COLONIES 

1.  CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH  (p.  3). 

Selections:  Cairns,  1-18;  Trent  and  Wells,  I,  1-22;  Stedman 
and  JIutchinson,  I,  3-17;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  1-6; 
Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  1-8;  Alderman  and  Others,  X,  4829- 
4845;  Bronson,  1-7. 

Note  the  peculiar  spelling,  phraseology,  etc.,  characteristic  of 
the  Elizabethan  age  in  English  literature.  Determine  for  your 
self  whether  Captain  Smith  seems  to  be  telling  the  exact  truth  or 
whether  he  is  dressing  up  his  narrative  to  make  it  interesting  to 
the  English  readers  for  whom  he  was  writing.  What  seems  to 
you  to  be  the  chief  value  of  Smith's  writings? 

2.  WILLIAM  STRACHEY  (p.  6). 

Selections:  Cairns,  19-26;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  I,  24-31; 
Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  6-9. 

Pay  particular  attention  to  the  vigorous  description  of  the 
storm  at  sea.  Read  in  this  connection  the  description  of  the 
storm  in  Shakespeare's  "The  Tempest"  (1610),  and  note  any 
similarities  of  subject-matter  or  phraseology  that  you  observe. 
A  brief  paper  may  be  prepared  on  this.  See  the  Variorum  edition 
of  "The  Tempest"  for  suggestion. 

3.  THE  BURWELL  PAPERS  (p.  8). 

Selections:  Cairns,  181-189;  Trent  and  Wells,  II,  156-169; 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  I,  450-462;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney, 
51-56;  Alderman  and  Others,  XIV,  6418. 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  387 

Read  up  on  Bacon's  Rebellion  in  your  United  States  History, 
and  then  read  the  contemporary  account  found  in  the  selections 
from  "The  Burwell  Papers."  Study  particularly  the  two  poetical 
epitaphs,  one  favorable  and  the  other  an  unfavorable  reply  to  the 
first,  and  determine  which  contains  the  better  poetry. 

WILLIAM  BYRD  (p.  9). 

Selections:  Cairns,  259-272;  Trent  and  Wells,  III,  21-43; 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  II,  302-309;  Newcomer,  Andrews  and 
Hall,  79-91;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  79-82;  Alderman  and 
Others,  II,  583-607;  Bronson,  113-121. 

Note  particularly  the  rich  descriptions  and  vigorous  satiric 
references  to  the  uncultured  North  Carolinians;  and  try  to  get 
some  idea  of  the  life  of  an  early  cavalier  planter  in  Virginia.  The 
bear  story  reprinted  on  page  n  of  the  present  volume  will  give 
you  an  idea  of  Colonel  Byrd's  descriptive  and  narrative  powers 
and  his  keen  sense  of  the  humorous.  Find  other  passages  of 
equal  interest. 


B.     NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES 
i.     PROSE 

1.  WILLIAM  BRADFORD  (p.  14). 

Selections:  Cairns,  27-43;  Trent  and  Wells,  II,  34-62  (also 
Mourfs  Relation,  pp.  63-69);  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  I,  93- 
130;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  9-11;  Calhoun  and  Mac 
Alarney,  8-15  (also  Mourt's  Relation,  pp.  15-18);  Bronson,  7-17. 

Read  particularly.the  account  of  Morton's  settlement  at  Merry 
Mount.  In  this  connection  read  also  Morton's  account  of  "A 
Great  Monster  Supposed  to  be  at  Mare  (Merry)  Mount,"  Cairns, 
67  ff.  ,  remembering  that  Captain  Shrimpe  is  Morton's  satirical 
designation  for  Captain  Miles  Standish.  Finally  read  Hawthorne's 
"The  Maypole  of  Merry  Mount,"  in  Twice-Told  Tales,  to  see 
just  how  the  later  romancer  used  the  historical  material  as  the 
basis  for  an  imaginary  tale  interpreting  the  spirit  of  the  times 
and  of  the  Puritans. 

2.  JOHN  WINTHROP  (p.  15). 

Selections:  Cairns,  44-59;  Trent  and  Wells,  I,  90-119;  Sted 
man  and  Hutchinson,  I,  291-311;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and 
Hall,  16-24;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  15-25;  Bronson,  17-29. 

The  student  will  get  a  fairly  good  idea  of  life  in  the  New  England 
colonies  by  reading  from  Bradford,  Winthrop,  and  Sewall.  Of 


388  History  of  American  Literature 

particular  interest  will  be  Winthrop's  and  Bradford's  account  of 
Reverend  John  Eliot,  the  Apostle  to  the  Indians.  Winthrop's 
letters  to  his  wife  Margaret,  and  her  letters  to  him,  are  models 
of  the  early  epistolary  style  and  show  an  admirable  example  of 
marital  love  and  respect.  Read  several  of  these.  If  possible, 
consult  Twichell,  Some  Old  Puritan  Love  Letters  (Dodd  Mead, 
1893). 

3.  SAMUEL  SEWALL  (p.  17). 

Selections:  Cairns,  238-251;  Trent  and  Wells,  II,  286-326; 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  II,  188-200;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and 
Hall,  74-79;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  66-74;  Bronson,  89-105. 

The  account  of  Judge  Sewall's  courtship  of  Mrs.  Winthrop  is 
particularly  amusing.  Note  the  value  of  a  private  diary  like 
this  in  presenting  a  realistic  picture  of  the  everyday  life  of  the 
people.  Sewall  has  been  called  "an  American  Pepys."  Why? 

4.  COTTON  MATHER  (p.  24). 

Selections:  Cairns,  217-237;  Trent  and  Wells  II,  231-285; 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  II,  114-166;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and 
Hall,  53-65;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  59-66;  Bronson,  71-89. 

Read  especially  the  selections  dealing  with  the  witchcraft  craze. 
It  seems  absurd  to  us  that  the  best  educated  and  most  serious- 
minded  men  and  women  believed  in  witchcraft  in  these  early 
days.  But  we  must  not  be  too  severe  in  our  condemnation  of 
the  chief  actors  in  the  delusion,  for  they  were  merely  trying  to 
carry  out  the  will  of  God  in  persecuting  those  supposed  to  be 
under  the  domination  and  direction  of  the  evil  spirit.  Compare 
Mather's  attitude  toward  witches  and  witchcraft  with  that  of 
Sewall  and  others. 

5.  JONATHAN  EDWARDS  (p.  26). 

Selections:  Cairns,  277-294;  Trent  and  Wells,  III,  143-189; 
Calhoun  and  MacAlarney  83-87;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  II, 
373-411;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  91-96;  Bronson,  122-133. 

The  young  reader  will  not  care  for  much  of  Jonathan  Edwards' 
philosophical  work  nor  for  very  much  of  his  long  sermons.  Read 
especially  extracts  from  the  sermon  called  "Sinners  in  the  Hands 
of  an  Angry  God"  and  also  brief  extracts  from  The  Freedom  of 
the  Will.  Try  to  interpret  the  spirit  of  Edwards  rather  than 
to  expound  his  philosophy.  Do  you  see  why  he  may  be  called  an 
early  transcendentalist?  Make  a  study  of  Holmes's  "The  Dea 
con's  Masterpiece"  with  Edwards  as  the  Deacon. 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  389 

II.       POETRY 

1.  THE  BAY  PSALM  BOOK  (p.  18). 

Selections:  Cairns,  73-81;  Trent  and  Wells,  I,  120-126;  Sted- 
man  and  Hutchinson,  I,  211-216;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall, 
24-25;  Bronson,  2-3. 

Read  the  introductory  statements  given  in  the  preface  to  The 
Bay  Psalm  Book  for  the  general  purposes  and  aims  of  the  trans 
lators.  Perhaps  we  are  too  ready  to  condemn  the  rough  and 
uncouth  metrical  translations  used  by  our  Puritan  forefathers  in 
their  religious  services.  It  will  be  interesting  to  make  a  com 
parison  of  three  or  four  of  these  Puritan  Psalms  with  the  parallel 
versions  in  the  King  James  and  the  modern  Oxford  Bibles. 

2.  ANNE  BRADSTREET  (p.  19). 

Selections:  Cairns,  146-164;  Trent  and  Wells,  I,  271-287; 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  I,  311-315;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and 
Hall,  42-44;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  33-39;  Bronson,  i-io; 
Boynton,  4-19. 

Mrs.  Bradstreet's  best  poem  is  "Contemplations."  The  stu 
dent  should  read  it  entire,  doing  his  best  to  appreciate  the  author's 
devout  religious  feeling,  her  pure  and  lofty  ideals,  and  her  keen 
appreciation  of  nature.  Designated  as  the  "Tenth  Muse"  by 
her  contemporaries,  she  deserves  our  attention  not  only  as  the 
first  woman  poet  of  America,  but  as  the  first  poet  of  importance, 
man  or  woman,  in  our  literary  history.  Her  rimed  love-letters 
to  her  husband  throw  much  light  on  her  character  and  personality. 

3.  MICHAEL  WIGGLESWORTH  (p.  20). 

Selections:  Cairns,  165-177;  Trent  and  Wells,  II,  47-60;  Sted 
man  and  Hutchinson,  II,  3-19;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall, 
44-99;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  47-51;  Bronson,  19-28;  Boyn 
ton,  18-23. 

A  little  of  Wigglesworth  will  suffice  for  most  readers.  Do  you 
like  the  ballad  meter  with  its  internal  rime  in  the  odd-numbered 
lines?  By  way  of  contrast  to  the  spirit  of  this  rimed  theology, 
read  the  rollicking  drinking  song  by  Thomas  Morton  in  Trent 
and  Wells,  I,  72,  or  in  Boynton,  p.  n. 

C.     THE  MIDDLE  COLONIES 

i.     JOHN  WOOLMAN  (p.  31). 

Selections:  Cairns,  305-313;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
78-85;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  96-107;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  115-117;  Bronson,  133-137. 


39°  History  of  American  Literature 

Woolman  is  a  quaint  writer,  and  his  Journal  is  worthy  of  close 
reading.  It  has  been  reprinted  in  complete  form  in  several  cheap 
editions,  notably  in  the  Macmillan  Pocket  Classics.  Particularly 
interesting  is  Woolman's  attitude  toward  the  question  of  slavery. 
Note  also  his  peculiar  views  on  the  use  of  dyes  in  clothing.  What 
do  you  learn  about  the  religious  views  of  the  Quakers  from  your 
study  of  Woolman? 

2.  THOMAS  GODFREY  (p.  32). 

Selections:  Cairns,  295-304;  Bronson  (Poems),  53-60;  New 
comer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  136-137;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney, 

IIO-II2. 

Those  interested  in  the  drama  should  read  "The  Prince  of 
Parthia"  entire,  as  the  earliest  example  of  the  American  drama. 
It  will  be  found  in  Quinn's  Representative  American  Plays,  1-42; 
and  in  Volume  I  of  Representative  Plays  by  American  Dramatists, 
edited  by  M.  J.  Moses,  21-108.  Note  particularly  evidences  of 
the  influence  of  Shakespeare  and  other  Elizabethan  dramatists 
on  Godfrey's  style. 

3.  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  (p.  33). 

Selections:  Cairns,  314-334;  Trent  and  Wells,  III,  190-236; 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III,  148-176;  Newcomer,  Andrews, 
and  Hall,  107-134;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  92-110;  Bronson, 
148-176;  Foerster,  1-37. 

Every  American  boy  and  girl  should  read  Franklin's  Autobi 
ography  in  some  good  annotated  edition.  Selections  from  the 
Almanacs  and  the  shorter  works  by  Franklin  will  be  found  in  the 
references  given  above.  Every  member  of  the  class  should  be 
required  to  write  on  or  to  discuss  orally  some  phase  of  Franklin's 
life  or  character.  See  the  essay  subjects  suggested  on  page  401, 
numbers  19-22. 

II.     REVOLUTIONARY   PERIOD 

A.    PROSE 
i.     PATRICK  HENRY  (p.  50). 

Selections:  Cairns,  335-342;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
214-218;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  120-123;  Alderman  and 
Others,  VI,  2355-2374;  Bronson,  197-200. 

Study  Patrick  Henry  as  a  typical  Revolutionary  orator.  Every 
American  boy  and  girl  should  iknow,  by  heart  if  possible,  his 
"Speech  on  Liberty,"  sometimes  called  "The  Alternative."  It 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  391 

has  been  reprinted  in  almost  every  reader,  speaker,  and  book  of 
prose  selections  published  in  America  from  the  earliest  days  of 
the  republic  to  the  present.  If  available,  Wirt's  Life  and  Character 
of  Patrick  Henry  should  be  read  in  this  connection. 

2.  ALEXANDER  HAMILTON  (p.  53). 

Selections:  Cairns,  362-371;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  IV, 
119-127;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  129-130;  Bronson,  216-224. 

Read  two  or  three  papers  from  The  Federalist.  This  is  an 
important  book  of  essays  in  our  political  literature,  but  it  is  prob 
ably  too  heavy  a  type  of  reading  for  most  high-school  students. 
The  entire  series  has  been  reprinted  in  convenient  modern  form 
in  Everyman's  Library  (Button). 

3.  THOMAS  JEFFERSON  (p.  54). 

Selections:  Cairns,  353-361;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
265-289;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  125-128;  Alderman  and 
Others,  VI,  2677-2717;  Bronson,  205-208. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence  is,  of  course,  Jefferson's 
outstanding  masterpiece  in  political  prose,  and  every  student  will 
naturally  be  familiar  with  this.  His  inaugural  addresses  are 
also  excellent  state  papers.  Most  students  will  doubtless  be  more 
interested  in  Jefferson's  descriptions  of  such  things  as  "The  Natural 
Bridge, "  found  in  his  Notes  on  Virginia,  than  in  his  state  papers. 
A  study  of  Jefferson's  ideas  on  architecture,  as  exemplified  in  his 
home,  Monticello,  and  in  his  plans  for  the  buildings  and  grounds  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  will  also  be  found  to  interest  some 
students. 

4.  THOMAS  PAINE  (p.  60). 

Selections:  Cairns  343-352;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
219-236;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  156-160;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  130-134;  Bronson,  202-205. 

The  student  will  be  more  interested  in  Common  Sense  and  The 
Crisis  than  in  Paine's  later  works.  The  Right  of  Man  has  been 
recently  issued  in  Everyman's  Library  (Button). 

5.  ST.  JOHN  DE  CREVECOEUR  (p.  63). 

Selections:  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III,  138-146;  Bronson, 
138-147- 

Crevecoeur  has  been  heretofore  little  known,  but  his  Letters 
from  an  American  Farmer  has  proved  to  be  such  an  interesting 
volume  from  every  point  of  view  that  it  is  now  ranked  relatively 
high  among  the  prose  productions  of  the  Revolutionary  Period. 


392  History  of  American  Literature 

The  complete  text  is  now  easily  accessible  in  Everyman's  Library 
(Button).  See  the  selection  given  on  pages  64  and  65  of  this 
volume. 

B.    POETRY 

1.  REVOLUTIONARY  BALLADS  AND  MINOR  POEMS  (p.  66). 

Selections:  Cairns,  449-465;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
338-361;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  134-136,  151-154; 
Bronson,  66-78;  Boynton,  58-88. 

Popular  songs  and  ballads  like  "Yankee  Doodle"  will  prove 
of  great  interest  to  the  students.  For  fuller  selections  see  Songs 
and  Ballads  of  the  American  Revolution,  edited  by  Frank  Moore; 
and  Poems  of  American  History,  edited  by  B.  E.  Stevenson. 

2.  JOHN  TRUMBULL  (p.  69). 

Selections:  Cairns,  395-408;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
403-413;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  141-151;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  141-145;  Bronson,  87-105;  Boynton,  43-57. 

The  selections  from  " McFingal "  will  be  of  most  interest.  "The 
Progress  of  Dulness"  will  also  prove  interesting  as  a  satire  on 
the  educational  system  of  the  times. 

3.  JOEL  BARLOW  (p.  73). 

Selections:  Cairns,  421-430;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  IV, 
46-55;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  147-152;  Bronson,  116-133; 
Boynton,  125-135. 

Barlow  may  be  taken  as  a  typical  epic  poet  of  the  period.  A 
few  selections  from  "The  Columbiad"  will  show  the  style  of  the 
heroic  couplets  which  he  employed  in  his  ambitious  but  unsuccess 
ful  epic.  "The  Hasty  Pudding"  is  worth  reading  entire.  If 
desirable,  a  broader  study  of  "The  Hartford  Wits"  (see  p.  68 
in  this  volume)  may  be  made.  Note  particularly  the  influence 
of  the  English  classical  poets  on  the  style  of  the  American  poets 
of  this  period. 

4.  PHILIP  FRENEAU  (p.  75). 

Selections:  Cairns,  431-448;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  III, 
445-457;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  175-185;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  135-141;  Bronson,  133-155;  Boynton,  89-117; 
Stedman,  3-8. 

Freneau  should  be  studied  as  a  nature  poet  and  as  a  satirist. 
He  is  particularly  interesting  as  an  interpreter  of  the  American 
spirit  of  his  times.  If  possible,  read  the  biographical  and  critical 
essay  by  F.  L.  Patee  in  Volume  I  of  the  definitive  edition  of 
Freneau's  works,  1902. ' 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  393 

C.     DRAMA  AND  FICTION 

1.  EARLY  AMERICAN  PLAYS  (p.  79). 

Selections:  Royal  Tyler's  "The  Contrast,"  in  Quinn,  43-77; 
in  Moses,  I,  430-498;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  159-166;  William 
Dunlap,  "Andre,"  in  Quinn,  79-108;  in  Moses,  I,  499-564. 

Until  recently  it  has  been  difficult  to  obtain  copies  of  the  early 
plays,  but  with  the  publication  of  A.  H.  Quinn's  Representative 
American  Plays  (Houghton  Mifflin,  1916)  and  the  first  of  the 
three  volumes  of  Representative  Plays  by  American  Dramatists, 
edited  by  M.  J.  Moses  (Button,  1918),  an  opportunity  is  given 
for  the  first-hand  study  of  the  early  types  of  American  drama. 
If  desirable,  Thomas  Godfrey  (see  p.  390  above)  may  be  included 
in  this  study. 

2.  EARLY  AMERICAN  NOVELS  (p.  81). 

Let  some  student  read  and  report  on  Charlotte  Temple  or  some 
other  available  example  of  the  early  American  sentimental  novel. 
If  possible,  The  Foresters,  by  Jeremy  Belknap,  and  Modern  Chivalry, 
by  H.  H.  Brackenridge,  may  also  be  assigned  for  special  reports. 
Selections  from  the  last-named  may  be  found  in  Cairns,  466-474. 

3.  CHARLES  BROCKDEN  BROWN  (p.  82). 

Selections:  Cairns,  475-493;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  IV, 
265-292;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  191-198;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  167-176. 

If  available,  one  or  more  of  Brown's  novels  should  be  read 
entire.  His  treatment  of  American  Indians,  the  yellow-fever 
epidemics  in  Philadelphia,  and  his  descriptions  of  the  scenery 
about  his  native  city  will  be  of  particular  interest.  Mr.  John 
Erskine  in  his  Leading  American  Novelists  devotes  a  chapter  to 
Brown. 


III.     ARTISTIC   OR   CREATIVE   PERIOD 

(NINETEENTH   CENTURY) 

A.    THE  NEW  YORK  GROUP 

WASHINGTON  IRVING  (p.  90). 

Selections:  Payne,  1-31;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  V,  41-83; 
Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  198-245;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney, 
186-225;  Bronson,  224-279;  Foerster,  38-94. 

The  Sketch  Book  should  be  read  entire.  Payne's  Selections 
contains  one  typical  essay,  "Westminster  Abbey,"  and  one  typical 
story,  "Rip  Van  Winkle."  After  a  close  classroom  study  of  these 


394  History  of  American  Literature 

or  similar  selections,  the  students  should  be  required  to  complete 
the  book  and  report  on  it  as  a  whole.  The  Alhambra  is  another 
book  that  may  be  profitably  read  entire  for  outside  reading  or  as 
a  classroom  text.  Tales  of  a  Traveler  may  be  similarly  treated. 
Most  of  the  stories  are  .entertaining,  but  those  treating  of  the 
Italian  banditti  and  the  money-diggers  (Parts  III  and  IV)  will 
probably  be  more  attractive  to  young  readers.  A  few  chapters 
from  the  brilliant  burlesque,  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York, 
will  be  enough  to  illustrate  this  particular  phase  of  Irving's  humor. 
Bracebridge  Hall  along  with  certain  sketches  in  the  Sketch  Book 
will  reflect  Irving's  travels  in  England  and  his  interest  in  English 
life.  The  Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith  is  a  good  example  of  the  sym 
pathetic  type  of  biography  written  by  one  literary  man  of  another; 
the  influence  of  Goldsmith  on  Irving's  prose  style  will  make  a 
good  essay  topic.  The  Life  of  Washington  and  The  Life  of  Columbus 
are  longer,  but  they  will  probably  hold  the  interest  of  some  students. 

2.  JAMES  FENIMORE  COOPER  (p.  100). 

Selections:  Payne,  32-41 ;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  V,  138- 
183;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  245-277;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  225-238;  Foerster,  95-130. 

The  Spy  is  a  good  story  to  read  first,  since  it  reflects  the  period 
of  the  American  Revolution.  Then  the  Leatherstocking  Tales 
may  be  read  in  the  chronological  order  —  The  Deer  slayer,  The  Last 
of  the  -Mohicans,  The  Pathfinder,  The  Pioneers,  The  Prairie.  For 
those  who  like  sea  tales  The  Pilot,  The  Red  Rover,  The  Two  A  dmirals, 
and  The  Water  Witch  will  prove  to  be  the  most  entertaining.  If 
there  is  time  for  only  a  few  of  Cooper's  books,  the  student  should 
be  encouraged  to  read  at  least  three  representative  novels  —  The 
Spy,  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  and  The  Pilot.  Subjects  for  essays 
on  specific  topics  will  readily  suggest  themselves. 

3.  WILLIAM  CULLEN  BRYANT  (p.  no). 

Selections:  Payne,  42-49;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  V,  53-79; 
Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  277-289;  Calhoun  and  Mac 
Alarney,  239-253;  Bronson,  178-208;  Page,  1-35;  Boynton,  169- 
174;  Stedman,  53-79. 

After  making  a  close  classroom  study  of  some  of  Bryant's 
shorter  poems,  the  student  should  be  encouraged  to  read  Bryant's 
translations  of  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  The  influence  of 
Wordsworth  on  Bryant  will  be  for  the  more  mature  students  a 
fruitful  study  in  literary  criticism. 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  395 

WALT  WHITMAN  (p.  118). 

Selections:  Payne,  50-71;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VII, 
501-513;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  748-774;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  573-584;  Bronson,  443-475;  Boynton,  473-541; 
Stedman,  221-232. 

For  the  young  reader  Whitman  is  best  in  selections.  His 
verse  will  present  a  new  problem,  but  if  the  student  will  read 
Whitman's  poems  aloud,  he  will  soon  begin  to  note  the  regular 
rhythmic  successions  by  which  the  poet  makes  his  effects.  Close 
classroom  study  of  a  few  selections  will  prepare  the  student  for 
more  rapid  reading  of  additional  selections.  If  the  student  will 
cultivate  a  taste  for  Whitman's  peculiar  style,  he  will  find  the  work 
of  this  poet  to  have  a  tonic  and  invigorating  effect  on  him. 


B.     THE  NEW  ENGLAND  GROUP 

RALPH  WALDO  EMERSON  (p.  157). 

Selections:  Payne,  72-108;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VI, 
128-166;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  400-444;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  316-352;  Bronson  (Poems'),  309-327;  Bronson 
(Prose),  345-406;  Page,  58-101;  Foerster,  300-327 -  Boynton, 
195-223;  Stedman,  90-101. 

Emerson  is  somewhat  difficult,  but  he  is  thoroughly  worth 
while  for  the  high-school  student.  Begin  with  a  close  classroom 
study  of  such  essays  as  "Compensation,"  "Self-Reliance,"  "Hero 
ism,"  and  the  like.  An  enthusiastic  teacher  can  rnake  Emersonians 
even  of  young  readers,  for  Emerson  is  particularly  attractive  in 
his  optimism,  his  independence,  and  his  Americanism  to  all  young 
minds.  A  few  of  the  simpler  poems  may  also  be  taken  up  for  closer 
study.  It  will  not  be  wise  to  force  much  outside  reading  in  Emerson 
on  immature  and  unwilling  minds,  which  may  thus  become  preju 
diced  against  him. 

NATHANIEL  HAWTHORNE  (p.  168). 

Selections:  Payne,  109-165;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VI, 
177-214;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  357-400;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  352-366;  Bronson,  406-474;  Foerster,  193-300. 

Hawthorne  is  one  of  the  greater  prose  writers  for  young  readers. 
Beginning  with  his  juvenile  books,  The  Wonder  Book,  Tanglewood 
Tales,  Grandfather's  Chair,  in  the  earlier  grades,  and-  following 
these  with  selected  stories  from  Twice-Told  Tales,  Mosses  from 


396  History  of  American  Literature 

an  Old  Manse,  The  Snow  Image,  and  taking  up  finally  the  longer 
novels,  The  House  of  the  Seven  Gables,  The  Scarlet  Letter,  The  Marble 
Faun,  the  student  may  find  a  progressive  sequence  of  the  most 
artistic  fiction  yet  produced  in  America.  To  cultivate  a  taste 
for  Hawthorne  is  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  the  very  best  of  our  prose 
stylists. 

3.  HENRY  WADSWORTH  LONGFELLOW  (p.  179) 

Selections:  Payne,  166-249;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VI,  282- 
324;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  591-641;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  366-434;  Bronson,  230-309;  Page,  102-258;  Boyn- 
ton,  366-420;  Stedman,  111-126. 

Longfellow  is  perhaps  the  best  poet  to  begin  with  if  one  desires 
to  cultivate  a  taste  for  simple  heart  melodies.  His  shorter  poems 
may  be  divided  into  song  lyrics,  ballads,  sonnets,  and  personal  or 
occasional  poems.  His  longer  narrative  poems  will  demand  special 
attention.  After  one  or  two  of  the  longer  poems  have  been  studied 
in  detail,  the  student  should  read  others  more  rapidly,  largely 
for  the  sake  of  the  story  in  each.  The  anthologies  usually  con 
tain  fairly  full  selections  from  Longfellow,  but  the  complete  works 
of  this  poet,  including  the  dramas  and  the  translation  of  Dante's 
Divina  Commedia,  should  be  accessible  to  the  high-school  students. 
Those  who  are  interested  in  American  romantic  prose  may  also 
read  Longfellow's  Outre  Mer,  Hyperion,  and  Kavanagh. 

4.  JOHN  GREENLEAF  WHITTIER  (p.  192). 

Selections:  Payne,  250-278;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VI, 
353-389;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  559-591;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  435-480;  Bronson,  328-375;  Page,  259-354;  Boyn- 
ton,  239-274;  Stedman,  128-142. 

Whittier's  early  ballads,  poems  on  slavery,  songs  of  labor, 
personal  and  occasional  poems,  and  longer  narrative  poems  may 
be  profitably  studied  in  groups. 

5.  OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES  (p.  200). 

Selections:  Payne,  279-298;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VII, 
3~37;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  641-678;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  480-507;  Bronson  (Poems),  375-387;  Bronson 
(Prose],  498-536;  Foerster,  569-619;  Page,  355~4O9;  Boynton, 
420-448;  Stedman,  153-162. 

The  humor  of  Holmes  will  attract  many  casual  readers,  but 
unless  some  external  stimulus  is  brought  to  bear  upon  high-school 
students,  few  of  them  will  be  able  to  make  a  serious  study  of  this 
poet.  The  student  should  be  taught  to  read  the  longer  occasional 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  397 

poems  and  to  appreciate  their  quality.  The  Autocrat  of  the  Break 
fast  Table  should  be  read  entire,  and  the  other  volumes  of  the 
Breakfast  Table  series  should  be  dipped  into  liberally.  One  or 
two  of  Holmes's  "medicated  novels"  will  also  prove  to  be  worth 
a  careful  perusal. 

6.  HENRY  DAVID  THOREAU  (p.  208). 

Selections:  Payne,  299-311;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VII, 
323-336;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  444-458;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  507-515;  Bronson,  474-498;  Foerster,  435-494. 

W olden  is  a  book  to  be  read  in  selections  by  young  readers, 
because  it  is  as  a  whole  too  largely  philosophical  and  too  subtle 
for  the  steady  perusal  of  young  persons.  The  Boy  Scouts  and 
Camp  Fire  Girls  will  enjoy  the  narrative  account  of  Thoreau's 
life  in  the  woods,  however,  and  they  should  be  encouraged  to 
read  as  much  of  Thoreau's  nature  description  as  they  will.  As 
far  as  possible  let  the  students  test  the  accuracy  of  Thoreau's 
observations. 

7.  JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL  (p.  215).. 

Selections:  Payne,  312-344;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VII, 
411-448;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  678-717;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  515-573;  Bronson  (Poems),  387-436;  Bronson 
(Prose],  536-589;  Page,  410-531;  Foerster,  495-568;  Boynton, 
275-316;  Stedman,  202-218. 

Lowell  is  equally  important  as  poet  and  as  essayist.  His  humor 
ous  dialect  work  in  the  Biglow  Papers,  First  and  Second  Series, 
will  interest  some  students,  though  these  volumes  will  have  to 
be  read  largely  from  the  historic  point  of  view.  The  longer  lit 
erary  essays  will  be  found  to  be  rather  difficult  reading  for  young 
readers,  though  some  of  these  should  be  read.  The  passages  from 
the  "Fable  for  Critics"  should  be  read  as  each  of  the  important 
authors  is  taken  up  for  classroom  study.  It  is  a  good  poem  to 
read  in  extracts  rather  than  entire. 

C.     THE  SOUTHERN  GROUP 

i.     EDGAR  ALLAN  POE  (p.  253). 

Selections:  Payne,  345-409;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VI, 
429-469;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  313-356;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  254-275;  Alderman  and  Others,  IX,  4083-4126; 
Bronson  (Poems),  209-230;  Bronson  (Prose),  280-344;  Page,  36- 
57;  Foerster,  131-192;  Boynton,  224-238;  Stedman,  144-152. 


398  History  of  American  Literature 

Poe  should  be  studied  as  poet,  critic,  and  story-writer.  His 
works  hold  a  sort  of  perennial  interest,  particularly  for  young 
readers,  and  hence  with  very  little  encouragement  high-school 
students  may  be  induced  to  read  deeply  into  both  his  prose  and 
his  poetry. 

2.  HENRY  TIMROD  (p.  265). 

Selections:  Payne,  410-417;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VIII, 
408-411;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  821-825;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  595-597;  Alderman  and  Others,  XII,  5391-4515; 
Bronson,  488-493;  Boynton,  342-355;  Stedman,  314-317. 

This  Southern  poet  deserves  more  attention  than  he  is  usually 
given  in  the  study  of  American  poetry.  The  fullest  selections  are 
found  in  Professor  Boynton's  American  Poetry.  Timrod's  com 
plete  poems  are  now  published  by  Houghton  Mifflin  and  Company. 

3.  PAUL  HAMILTON  HAYNE  (p.  271). 

Selections:  Payne,  418-420;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  VIII, 
461-466;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  825-830;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  598-600;  Alderman  and  Others,  V,  2265-2297; 
Bronson,  494-496;  Boynton,  356-365;  Stedman,  317-320. 

Hayne  and  Timrod  are  both  good  sonneteers.  The  student 
may  make  a  special  study  of  Hayne's  sonnets,  or  his  longer  odes, 
or  his  narrative  poems.  Hayne  lived  longer  than  most  of  the 
other  Southern  poets,  and  his  work  represents  in  good  average 
verse  much  of  the  charm  of  Southern  life  and  scene.  A  special 
paper  might  be  written  on  the  correspondence  of  Hayne  and 
Lanier,  and  another  on  the  relationship  between  Timrod  and 
Hayne. 

4.  SIDNEY  LANIER  (p.  274). 

Selections:  Payne,  421-427;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  X,  145- 
151;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  830-844;  Calhoun  and 
MacAlarney,  584-590;  Alderman  and  Others,  VII,  3041-3077; 
Bronson,  525-533;  Page,  611-632;  Boynton,  449-472;  Stedman, 
433-440. 

Lanier  should  be  studied  closely  for  the  musical  effects  of  his 
verse.  His  letters  and  his  work  on  The  Science  of  English  Verse 
will  be  suggestive  and  elucidating  on  this  point.  Stedman  groups 
Lanier  along  with  seven  other  major  American  poets,  and  Page 
includes  him  with  full  selections  in  his  Chief  American  Poets.  His 
poetry  is  highly  artistic,  but  it  will  be  difficult  for  those  who  have 
little  taste  for  the  finer  musical  modulations  of  poetry. 


Suggestions  for  Outside  Reading  399 

D.     THE  WESTERN  GROUP 

1.  MARK  TWAIN  (p.  320). 

Selections:  Payne,  451-457;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  IX, 
290-307. 

Mark  Twain  is  not  easily  accessible  in  books  of  selections.  He 
believed  that  an  author  should  be  granted  a  perpetual  copyright 
on  the  product  of  his  own  brain,  and  his  publishers  and  heirs  have 
not  as  yet  in  any  large  way  consented  for  Mark  Twain's  works  to 
be  reprinted  in  anthologies.  However,  complete  special  volumes 
are  easily  accessible.  Every  young  American  reads  Tom  Sawyer 
and  Huckleberry  Finn  at  the  first  fair  opportunity.  The  Prince 
and  the  Pauper  is  another  favorite  with  young  readers.  Some  of 
the  longer  humorous  books,  such  as  Innocents  A  broad  and  Roughing 
It,  will  hold  high-school  students  throughout.  Mark  Twain's 
short  stories  are  also  good  reading,  and  his  humorous  essays  and 
orations  are  delightful. 

2.  BRET  HARTE  (p.  331). 

Selections:  Payne,  458-471;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  X, 
3-22;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  601;  .Stedman,  403-407. 

Bret  Harte's  better  poems  and  short  stories  are  easily  accessible 
in  a  volume  in  the  Riverside  Literature  Series  (Houghton  Mifflin). 
The  student  should  read  several  of  the  stories  and  several  of  the 
poems  in  addition  to  what  is  found  in  the  anthologies. 

3.  JOAQUIN  MILLER  (p.  335). 

Selections:  Payne,  472-476;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  X, 
80-85;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  618-621;  Boynton,  555-567; 
Stedman,  426-430. 

"The  Poet  of  the  Sierras"  is  still  somewhat  inaccessible  to  the 
general  reader.  No  single  volume  of  his  best  verse  has  yet  been 
published.  His  heroic  poems  and  his  portrayal  of  western  moun 
tain  scenery  are  well  worth  studying. 

4.  JAMES  WHITCOMB  RILEY  (p.  340). 

Selections:  Payne,  481-485;  Stedman  and  Hutchinson,  XI, 
130-136;  Calhoun  and  MacAlarney,  627-629;  Stedman,  559-564. 

Riley  is  perhaps  the  most  popular  poet  we  have  had  since 
Longfellow,  and  there  will  be  little  trouble  in  getting  high-school 
students  to  read  his  works  rather  fully.  Suggested  groupings  for 
special  study  are  Riley's  dialect  verse,  his  child  poems,  his  humor 
ous  verse,  his  serious  and  pathetic  poems,  etc. 


400  History  of  American  Literature 

5.     WILLIAM  VAUGHN  MOODY  (p.  344). 

Selections:  Payne,  486-488;  Boynton,  577-589;  Stedman, 
726-727. 

Moody  is  somewhat  difficult  for  most  high-school  readers,  but 
his  poetry  will  be  found  to  be  stimulating  to  the  more  advanced 
students.  His  acting  plays,  "The  Great  Divide"  and  "The  Faith 
Healer,"  will  be  easier  reading  than  the  poetic  dramas,  such  as 
"The  Fire  Bringer"  and  "The  Masque  of  Judgment."  The  poem 
on  "The  Death  of  Eve"  will  be  attractive  to  some  students. 


SUGGESTED   SUBJECTS  FOR   ESSAYS 
I.     COLONIAL  PERIOD 

1.  Peculiar  Words  and  Phrases  in  the  Early  Colonial  Writings 

2.  What  I  Learned  about  Indians  from  the  Readings  in  Colonial 
Literature 

3.  Captain  John  Smith  as  a  Typical  Colonial  Leader 

4;  An  Imaginary  Account  of  a  Trip  with  Captain  Smith 

5.  The  Story  ot  Pocahontas 

6.  The  Career  of  Nathaniel  Bacon  (see  the  "Burwell  Papers") 

7.  A   Trip   through   Virginia   and    North   Carolina   with   Colonel 
William  Byrd 

8.  Life  in  the  Southern  Colonies  (see  particularly  the  writings  of 
Colonel  William  Byrd) 

9.  The  Chief  Source  Books  on  Colonial  History  in  New  England 

10.  An  Early  Colonial  Courtship  (consult  Se wall's  Diary) 

11.  A  Woman's  Trip  on  Horseback  from  Boston  to  New  York  in 
1704  (see  Sarah  Kemble  Knight  in  Trent  and  Wells,  II,  327;   Bronson 
[Prose]  105;  Newcomer,  Andrews,  and  Hall,  65;  Stedman  and  Hutchin- 
son,  II,  248) 

12.  Ideals  of  the  Puritans  as  Revealed  in  Their  Writings 

13.  The  Settlement  at  Merrymount  (see  Bradford,  Morton,  etc.) 

14.  The  Witchcraft  Craze  in  Early  New  England  Literature 

15.  The  Life  and  Times  of  Jonathan  Edwards 

1 6.  Our  First  Woman  Poet 

17.  "The  Day  of  Doom"  as  an  Interpretation  of  Puritanism 

1 8.  Why  I  Like  John  Woolman's  Journal 

19.  The  Many-sided  Franklin 

20.  Lessons  Learned  from  Franklin's  Autobiography 

2 1 .  Franklin's  Proverbs 

22.  "Poor  Richard":  A  Character  Sketch 

23.  A  Book  Review:    Some   Novel  Dealing  with   Colonial  Times 
(see  pp.  42-43  of  this  volume) 

II.     REVOLUTIONARY  PERIOD 

1.  The  General  Characteristics  of  Revolutionary  Literature 

2.  Patrick  Henry  as  a  Typical  Revolutionary  Orator 

3.  Our   First  Tragedy:     "The   Prince   of   Parthia,"    by   Thomas 
Godfrey 

401 


4O2  History  of  American  Literature 

4.  The  American  Spirit  in  Our  Early  Drama  (see  Tyler's  "The 
Contrast,"  Dunlap's  "Andre,"  etc.,  in  Quinn  or  Moses) 

5.  "Jonathan,"  the  First  Stage  Yankee   (see  "The  Contrast") 

6.  Literary  Qualities  of  Washington's  "Farewell  Address" 

7.  Washington's    and    Jefferson's    Attitude    toward    "Entangling 
Alliances";   or  From  Washington  to  Wilson  in  World  Policies 

8.  Jefferson  as  "The  Father  of  the  University  of  Virginia" 

9.  A  Visit  to  Mount  Vernon 

10.  A  Visit  to  Monticello 

11.  Early  American  Farm  Life  (see  Crevecoeur) 

12.  A  Book  Review:   One  of  Charles  Brockden  Brown's  Novels 

13.  The  Nature  Poems  of  Philip  Freneau 

14.  Francis  Hopkinson  and  "The  Battle  of  the  Kegs" 

15.  Our  Early  National  Songs,  "Yankee  Doodle"  etc. 

1 6.  Domestic  Life  in  Revolutionary  Times  (see  the  Biographies  of 
Martha  Washington,  Mercy  Warren,  etc.) 

17.  A   Book  Review:     Some    Novel    Dealing    with    Revolutionary 
Times  (see  pp.  86-87) 

III.     THE  ARTISTIC  OR  CREATIVE  PERIOD  (NINETEENTH  CENTURY) 

A.      THE    NEW   YORK    GROUP 

1.  Variety  and  Range  of  Subject- Matter  and   Style  in   Irving's 
The  Sketch  Book 

2.  Irving's  Humor 

3.  Sentiment  and  Pathos  in  The  Sketch  Book 

4.  Irving's  Creation  of  Fictitious  Characters 

5.  Irving  as  a  Biographer 

6.  The  Influence  of  Addison  on  Irving 

7.  Ichabod  Crane:  A  Character  Sketch 

8.  Cooper's  Indians 

9.  Cooper's  Portrayal  of  Pioneer  Life 

10.  Faults  of  Cooper's  Style 

1 1 .  Harvey  Birch,  the  Spy 

12.  Natty  Bumppo:  A  Character  Sketch 

13.  Long  Tom  Coffin:  A  Character  Sketch 

14.  Bryant's  Nature  Poems 

15.  Bryant  as  a  Journalist 

1 6.  Bryant's  Translations  of  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey 

17.  Walt  Whitman  as  the  Poet  of  Democracy 

1 8.  Walt  Whitman  and  Abraham  Lincoln 


Suggested  Subjects  for  Essays  403 

19.  The  Peculiarities  of  Walt  Whitman's  Style 

20.  Walt  Whitman  as  a  Hospital  Nurse  during  the  Civil  War 

2 1 .  Walt  Whitman  and  the  Recent  Writers  of  Free  Verse 

22.  My  Favorite  Minor  Poet  of  the  New  York  Group 


B.       THE    NEW   ENGLAND    GROUP 

1.  Wisdom  from  Emerson:    My  Favorite  Quotations  and  Why  I 
Like  Them 

2.  Emerson's  Doctrine  of  Self-Reliance  and  Independence 

3.  Applications  of  the  Law  of  Compensation  in  My  Own  Life 

4.  Emerson's  Teachings  on  Nature  in  Prose  and  Verse 

5.  Emerson's  Prose  Style 

6.  Emerson's  Attitude  toward  Books 

7.  Emerson  as  a  Lecturer 

8.  Concord  and  Its  Literary  Associations 

9.  Emerson's  Method  of  Composition 

10.  My  Favorites  among  Hawthorne's  Short  Stories 

1 1 .  A  Visit  to  the  Old  Manse  and  Concord  Bridge 

12.  Sleepy  Hollow  Cemetery 

13.  Hawthorne's  Use  of  Symbolism  and  Allegory 

14.  The  Reflection  of  Puritanism  in  Hawthorne's  Tales 

15.  Hawthorne's  Connection  with  the  Transcendental  Movement 

1 6.  Hawthorne's  Method  of  Making  Notes  for  His  Stories 

17.  Poe  and  Hawthorne  as  Writers  of  the  Short  Story 

1 8.  Why  Longfellow  is  Our  Most  Popular  Poet 

19.  Longfellow  and  the  Children 

20.  Influence  of  Longfellow's  Foreign  Travel  on  His  Poetry 

21.  Longfellow's    "Evangeline"     and     Goethe's    "Hermann     und 
Dorothea." 

22.  Longfellow's  Use  of  Indian  Legends 

23.  A  Defense  of  Longfellow  against  the  Attacks  of  Certain  Modern 
Critics 

24.  Craigie  House:   Longfellow's  Home 

25.  Whittier  as  the  Poet  Laureate  of  New  England 

26.  What  I  Like  and  What  I  Dislike  in  Whittier's  Anti-Slavery 
Poetry 

27.  Whittier's  Poems  Classified 

28.  A  Comparison  of  Whittier's  "The  Tent  on  the  Beach"  with 
Longfellow's  "The  Wayside  Inn" 

29.  A    Comparison    of    Whittier's    "Snow-Bound"    with    Burns's 
"The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night" 


404  History  of  American  Literature 

30.  Descriptions     of    Snow    in    American    Poetry    (see    Whittier, 
Emerson,  Bryant,  Lowell,  Frost,  etc.) 

31.  Whittier  and  the  Abolition  Movement 

32.  Holmes's  Poems  Classified 

33.  The  Humor  of  Holmes 

34.  Famous  Class  Poems  by  Holmes 

35.  Holmes  as  a  Talker 

36.  The   Peculiar  Advantages   of  the  Plan  of  The  Autocrat  of  the 
Breakfast  Table 

37.  The  Influence  of  Holmes's  Scientific  Studies  on  His  Literary 
Productions 

38.  Lowell  as  a  Representative  Literary  Man 

39.  Lowell's  Personal  Poems 

40.  Lowell's  Americanism 

41.  Lowell  as  a  Critic 

42.  The  Moral  and  Didactic  Element  in  Lowell's  Poetry 


C.       THE    SOUTHERN    GROUP 

1.  Poe's  Character 

2.  The  Qualities  of  Poe's  Poetry 

3.  Poe's  Stories  Classified 

4.  Why  I  Like  Poe's  Stories 

5.  Poe's  Detective  Stories  and  Their  Influence 

6.  Poe's  Place  in  American  Criticism 

7.  Poe's  Theory  of  Poetry 

8.  Poe  and  the  Development  of  the  Short  Story 

9.  Poe's  Use  of  the  Supernatural 

10.  The  Sad  Story  of  Timrod's  Life 

1 1 .  Timrod  's  War  Poems 

12.  The  Life  Story  of  Paul  Hamilton  Hayne 

13.  Southern  Life  and  Scenery  in  Hayne's  Poetry 

14.  Hayne's  Treatment  of  Nature 

15.  Hayne  as  Editor  of  Russell's  Magazine 

1 6.  The  Charleston  Coterie  of  Writers 

17.  A  Study  of  Hayne's  Sonnets 

1 8.  Letters  of  Two  Poets,  Hayne  and  Lanier 

19.  Sidney  Lanier 's  Marsh  Hymns 

20.  Musical  Effects  in  Lanier's  Poems 

21.  The  Spiritual  and  Moral  Element  in  Lanier's  Poetry 

22.  Lanier  as  a  Letter  Writer 

23.  Lanier's  Love  Poems 


Suggested  Subjects  for  Essays  405 

D.       THE    WESTERN    GROUP 

1.  Mark  Twain  as  a  Typical  American 

2.  The  Funniest  Things  Mark  Twain  Ever  Said 

3.  Tom  Sawyer,  a  Typical  American  Boy 

4.  Why  Huck  Finn  Is  a  Great  Character  Creation 

5.  Mark  Twain's  Descriptions  of  Life  on  the  Mississippi  River 

6.  The  Humor  of  Innocents  Abroad 

7.  The  Humor  of  Roughing  It 

8.  Mark  Twain  as  a  Public  Entertainer 

9.  Realism  in  Mark  Twain's  Stories 

10.  Bret  Harte  and  the  Local-Color  Story 

1 1 .  Bret  Harte's  Poems 

12.  Joaquin  Miller,  "The  Poet  of  the  Sierras" 

13.  Eugene  Field,  the  Poet  Laureate  of  Childhood 

14.  Riley's  Dialect  Poems 

15.  Riley's  Humor  and  Pathos 

1 6.  My  Favorite  Riley  Poems 

17.  William  Vaughn  Moody's  Poems 

1 8.  William  Vaughn  Moody  as  a  Dramatist 

19.  My  Favorite  Western  Poet 

20.  A  Book  Review:  Some  Novel  Dealing  with  Western  Life 


THE    INDEX 


(Titles  appear  in  italic.    Bold-face  figures  indicate  the  main  treatment  of  the  subject.") 


Abolition,  149,  151,  155,  197,  198, 

2 1 8,  240,  248 
Adams,  John,  48,  51,  52 
Adams,  Samuel,  46,  47,  48,  51,  62 
Adventures    of  Huckleberry    Finn, 

The,  322,  327,  329 
Aiken,  Conrad  Potter,  290 
Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  152,  153, 

154,  239 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  239 
Alden,   John   and    Priscilla,    112, 

187,  189 
Aldrich,     Thomas     Bailey,     229, 

230  f.,  239 
Alhambra,  The,  96 
Allen,  James  Lane,  291,  303  f. 
Almanacs,  13;  Franklin's,  35,  38  ff. 
Americanism,  spirit  of,  316  f. 
American  Scholar,  The,  162 
Annalists,  New  England,  14  ff. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  in 
Articles  of  Confederation,  47 
^  Atherton,  Gertrude,  370 
Autobiography,  Franklin's,  30,  35, 

38,  40,  85,  88 

Autobiography,  Jefferson's,  59 
Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast    Table, 

The,  202,  206  f. 

Bacheller,  Irving,  148 
Ballads,  Revolutionary,  66  ff . 
Bancroft,  George,  172,  225,  227, 

228 

Bangs,  Edward,  66 
Barbara  Frietchie,  198 
Barlow,  Joel,  69,  73  ff. ;  suggested 

reading,  392 

Baskerville,  W.  M.,  quoted,  302 
Battlefield,  The,  extract,  116 
Battle  Hymn  of  the  Republic,  232 
Battle  of  the  Kegs,  67 ;  extract,  68 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  The,  13,  18  f.; 

extract,  19,  389 
Belknap,  Jeremy,  82 
Ben  Hur,   a    Tale   of  the    Christ, 

363  f. 


Beverly,  Robert,  9 

Bibliographies,   40,   85,   375,   384 

Bitter-Sweet,  extract,  231 

Blithedale  Romance,  The,  154,  177 

Boker,  George  H.,  139 

Boone,  Daniel,  313,  316,  368 

Boston  as  a  literary  center,  88,  89 

Brackenridge,   Hugh   Henry,    75, 
79,  82 

Bradford,  Governor  William,  14  f ., 

16;  suggested  reading,  387 
>Bradstreet,  Anne,   14,  19  f. ;  sug 
gested  reading,  389 

Branch,  Anna  Hempstead,  233 

Breitman,  Hans,  139 

Brook  Farm,  140,  154  f.,  174,  177 
--Brown,  Alice,  239,  242 

Brown,    Charles    Brockden,    45, 

82  ff.,  88,  90;  education  of,  82; 
early  works  of,  82  ff. ;  last  days 
of,  84  f.;  tales  of,  84;  Wieland, 

83  f . ;  suggested  reading,  393 
Bryant,  William  Cullen,  90,  107, 

no  ff.,  220;  "American  Words 
worth,  The,"  no;  as  an  editor, 
114;  best  poems  of,  H4ff.; 
death  and  burial  of,  Ho  f.; 
estimate  of,  117;  portrait  of ,  1 1 1 ; 
precocity  of,  112  f.;  young  man 
hood  of,  113;  visits  to  Europe, 
114;  suggested  reading,  394 

Building  of  the  Ship,    The,    184; 
extract,  185 

Bunner,  Henry  Cuyler,  148 

Burdette,  Robert  J.,  342 
*  Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  296 

Burroughs,     John,     140,     141  f.; 
portrait  of,  143 

Burwell  Papers,  8 ,  386 

Butler,  Samuel,  70 

Bynner,  Witter,  139 

Byrd,  Colonel  William,  9  ff.,  88; 
home  of,  10;  suggested  reading, 

387 

Byron,  George  Gordon,  Lord,  105, 
152,  220,  261 


407 


408 


The  Index 


Cable,  George  Washington,  250, 

291,  301  f.,  342 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell,  252  f. 
California  and  Oregon  Trails,  The, 

227 

Call  of  the  Bugles,  The,  extract,  137 
Canfield,  Dorothy,  370 
Carleton,  Will,  352 
Carlyle,  Thomas,  23,  121,211,  229 
Carpenter,  George  Rice,  quoted, 

199 

Cary,  Alice  and  Phoebe,  139 
Catherwood,      Mary      Hartwell, 

369  f. 

Cawein,  Madison,  286,  288  f. 
Celebrated  Jumping  Frog  of  Cala- 

veras  County  and  Other  Sketches, 

The,  323,  325 

Chambered   Nautilus,    The,   204 
Channing,  William  Ellery,  150  f., 

154,  208,  210,  212 

Charleston  as  a  literary  center, 
247 

Cheney,  John  Vance,  352 

Chicago,  quoted,  359  f. 

Christmas  Night  in  the  Quarters, 
288 

Chronological  Charts,  378  ff. 

Churchill,  Winston,  363,  367  ff. 

Circuit  Rider,  a  Tale  of  the  Heroic 
Age,  The,  365 

Civil  War,  minor  southern  poets 
of  the,  283  ff. 

Clari,  or  The  Maid  of  Milan,  138 

Clark,   George  Rogers,   313,   316 

Clark,  William,  313,  316 

Clay,  Henry,  252 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhorne.  See 
Twain,  Mark 

Colonial  literature,  i  ff . ;  back 
ground  of,  I  ff. ;  of  Middle  Colo 
nies,  30  ff . ;  of  New  England 
Colonies,  1 2  ff . ;  of  Southern 
Colonies,  3  ff. 

Columbia,  extract,  73 

Commemoration  Ode,  221 

Concord,  140,  158,  165,  167,  174, 
177,  178,  209,  210,  212,  213,  216 

Concord  Hymn,  160 

Connecticut  Yankee  in  King 
Arthur's  Court,  A,  329 

Conquest  of  Mexico,  225,  226,  363 


Conquest  of  Peru,  The,  226 

Contemplations,  13;  extract,  20 

Contrast,  The,  80 

Cooke,  John  Esten,  283,  290, 
293  f. 

Cooke,  Philip  Pendleton,  283,  293 
>  Cooke,  Rose  Terry,  241 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  84,  85; 
89,  100 ff.,  145,  220,  293 ^'Amer 
ican  Scott,  The,"  100,  102; 
decline  of  popularity,  108  f. ; 
estimate  of,  102;  in  the  navy, 
103  f. ;  Last  of  the  Mohicans, 
The,  107;  Leatherstocking 
Tales,  The,  107  f.;  monument 
to,  no;  portrait  of,  101;  Sea 
Tales,  105  f.;  Spy,  The,  105; 
success  of,  1 06  i. ;  youth  and 
education  of,  102  f.;  suggested 
reading,  394 

Copse  Hill,  270,  272 

Cornhuskers,  360 

Cotton  Boll,  The,  269 

Courtin',  The,  220 

Craddock,  Charles  Egbert,  291, 
302,  303 

Craigie  House,  Longfellow's  home, 
182,  215 

Crane,  Stephen,  145,  147  f. 

Crawford,  F.  Marion,  145,  146  f. 

Crevecoeur,  Hector  St.  John  de, 
63  ff. ;  suggested  reading,  391 

Crisis,  The  (Churchill),  368 

Crisis,  The  (Paine),  extract,  62 

Crossing,  The,  368 

Crothers,  Dr.  Samuel  McChord, 
228  f. 

Curtis,  George  William,  140  f. 

Daguerreotype,  The,  346 

Dana,   Richard  Henry,  Jr.,   239, 

240 

Dance,  The,  extract,  67 
Davis,  Richard  Harding,  148 
Day  of  Doom,  The,  13,  33;  extract, 

21  f. 
Deacon's  Masterpiece,  The,  28,  29, 

205 

Death  of  the  Flowers,  extract,  115 
Declaration  of  Independence,   The, 

37,  56,  58,  67 
Dennie,  Joseph,  80  f . 


The  Index 


409 


Description  of  New  England,  A,  4 

Dial,  The,  153  f. 

Diary,  Sewall's,  17 

Dickinson,  Emily,  232 

Dickinson,  John,  53,  66,  88 

Divina  Commedia,  Longfellow's 
translation  of,  116,  188 

Drama,  beginnings  of,  in  America, 
32  f . ;  in  Revolutionary  period, 
79;  suggested  reading  in,  393 

Dromgoole,  Will  Allen,  303 

Drum  Taps,  124 

Dunlap,  William,  80,  85 

Edgar  Huntly,  or  The  Adventures 
of  a  Sleep-  Walker,  84 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  26  ff.,  33,  38, 
72,  88;  education  of,  26;  mar 
riage  of,  27  f. ;  ministerial  work, 
26  f. ;  writings  of,  27  ff. ;  sug 
gested  reading,  388 

Eggleston,  Edward,  363,  364  f. 

Elliott,  Sarah  Barnwell,  302  f. 

Elsie  Venner,  207 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  126,  140, 
151,  152,  153,  154,  157  ff.,  174, 

177,    200,    208,     210,    214,    2l6, 

220,  229;  "American  Scholar, 
The,"  160  f.;  as  an  essayist, 
157,  162  f.;  as  a  poet,  164  f.; 
"Concord  Hymn,"  160;  early 
life  of,  I57f.;  his  first  book, 
1 60;  his  other  prose  volumes, 
163  f.;  Holmes's  estimate  of, 
164;  home  of,  163;  last  days  of, 
i67f.;  lectures  of,  I58f.;  por 
trait  of,  159;  prose  style  of,  164; 
suggested  reading,  395 

Emily  Sparks,  quoted,  358 

English,  Thomas  Dunn,   138 

Epitaph:  of  Richard  Mather,  23; 
of  Thomas  Jefferson,  54 

Epitaph  on  Nathaniel  Bacon,  8 

Essays,  Emerson's,  162  f. 

Essays,  suggested  subjects  for, 
401  ff. 

Ethnogenesis,  268 

E-vangeline,  185  ff. 

Everett,  Edward,  156 

Fable  for  Critics,  A,  117,  219;  ex 
tract,  220 


Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher,   The, 

264  f. 
.  Farewell   Address,    Washington's, 

59  f- 
Father  Abraham's  Speech,  extract, 

39  f-  . 

Federalist,  The,  54 

Fiction,  of  the  New  England 
group,  239  ff . ;  of  the  New  York 
group,  145  ff.;  of  the  Revolu 
tionary  period,  81  ff.;  of  the 
Southern  group,  290  ff . ;  of  the 
Western  group,  362  ff.;  sug 
gested  reading  in,  393 

Field,  Eugene,  320,  338  ff.,  342 ; 
portrait  of,  339 

Filsinger,  Mrs.  Ernst  B.  See 
Teasdale,  Sara 

Fisher,  Mrs.  J.  R.  See  Canfield, 
Dorothy 

Fiske,  John,  225,  227,  228 

Fletcher,  John  Gould,  348,  362 

Flute  and  Violin  and  Other  Ken 
tucky  Tales  and  Romances,  303 

Foote,  Mary  Hallock,  370 

Ford,  Paul  Leicester,  148 

Foster,  Hannah,  81 

Foster,  Stephen  C.,  138 

Fox,  John,  Jr.,  1291,  304 

Franklin,  Benjamin,- 30,  33  ff.,  60, 
62,  85;  Autobiography,  40,  85, 
88 ;  early  life  of,  33  ff . ;  his  serv 
ices  to  the  government,  37  f.; 
later  attainments  of,  35  f . ; 
philosophy  of,  38  ff . ;  suggested 
reading,  390 

Frederic,  Harold,  148 

Freedom  of  the  Will,  27,  28  f. 
^Freeman,  Mary  E.  Wilkins,  239, 
241,  242 

Free-Verse,    122,    233,    236,    237, 

355  f-l  359  f- 

French,  Alice,  370 

Freneau,  Philip,  45,  75  fif.,  79,  85, 
88;  as  editor  and  poet,  75  f.; 
education  and  early  works  of, 
75;  estimate  of,  78;  nature 
lyrics  of,  77  ff . ;  suggested  read 
ing,  392 

Frost,  Robert,  234,  235 

Fuller,  Henry  Blake,  370 
>  Fuller,  Margaret,    152,    154,    177 


4io 


The  Index 


Galloway,  Joseph,  52 
Garland,  Hamlin,  363,  365  f. 
Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  156,  196 
General  Historie  of  Virginia,  New 
England  and  the  Summer  Isles, 
The,  4;  extract,  6 
Gettysburg  National  Cemetery,  Ad 
dress  at  the  Dedication  of,  318 
Gift,  The,  quoted,  238 
Gilder,  Richard  Watson,  139 
Glasgow,  Ellen,  291,  296 
Godfrey,  Thomas,  32  f .,  79 ;  sug 
gested  reading,  390 
Grady,  Henry  Woodfin,  253 
"Great  Debate,  The,"  253 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  239,  241 

Hale  in  the  Bush,  extract,  67 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  47,  48,  53  f., 
60,  76,  88,  370;  suggested  read 
ing,  391 

Hamilton,  William,  272 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  250,  251, 
287,  288,  291,  297  ff.,  344;  esti 
mate  of,  297;  portrait  of,  299; 
preparation  of,  297  f . ;  stories  of, 
298,  300  f. 

Harrison,  Henry  Sydnor,  291,  296 

Harte,  Francis  Bret,  312,317,  320, 
324,  331  ff.,  362;  education  of, 
331  f. ;  connection  of,  with  The 
^Atlantic  Monthly,  334;  place  of, 
in  literature,  334  f . ;  portrait  of, 
333;  stories  of,  332,  334;  sug 
gested  reading,  399 

Hartford  Wits,  68  ff. 

Hasty  Pudding,  The,  extract,  74  f. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  16,  85, 
154,  156,  157,  158,  167,  i68ff., 

ISO,    203,    2IO,    220,    239,    260, 

262,  304,  312,  325;  Blithedale 
Romance,  The,  177;  estimate  of, 
178  f . ;  House  of  the  Seven  Gables, 
The,  175  f. ;  juvenile  books  of, 
176  f.;  later  works  of,  178;  life 
of,  abroad,  177  f . ;  life  of,  in  the 
"Old  Manse,"  172,  174;  por 
trait  of,  169;  Scarlet  Letter,  The, 
174  f.;  tales  and  sketches, 
1 70  ff. ;  youth  and  education  of, 
1 68,  170;  suggested  reading,  395 
Hay,  John,  348  ff. 


Hayne,  Paul  Hamilton,  247,  250, 
266,  270,  271  ff.,  274,  286,  292; 
Civil  War  experiences  of,  271  f . ; 
editorial  work  of,  271;  life  of, 
at  "Copse  Hill,"  272;  portrait 
of,  273;  value  of  work  of,  272, 
274;  suggested  reading,  398 

Hayne,  Robert  Young,  252  f.,  271 

Hegan,  Alice.  See  Rice,  Alice 
Hegan 

Henry,  O.,  145,  250,  25:,  305  ff., 
373;  as  a  journalist,  306,  308; 
best  stories  of,  309  f. ;  birth  and 
early  life  of,  305  f . ;  career  of,  as 
a  writer,  308  f.;  final  summary 
of,  311  f.;  humor  of,  310  f.;  in 
Texas,  306;  portrait  of,  307 

Henry,  Patrick,  46,  48,  49,  50  f., 
88,  251,  252;  suggested  read 
ing,  390 

Hermitage,  The,  350;  extract,  351 

Herrick,  Robert,  371 

Hiawatha,  187 

History  of  New  York  by  Diedrich 
Knickerbocker,  A ,  30,  93  f . 

History  of  Plymouth  Plantation, 
The,  14  f. 

History  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico. 
See  Conquest  of  Mexico 

History  of  the  Dividing  Line  Run 
in  1728,  9,  10;  extract,  n 

Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert,  230,  231  f. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  28,  156, 
157,  160,  162,  164,  200  ff.,  216, 
220,  229,  344;  ancestry  of, 
202  f . ;  as  an  essayist,  200,  202 ; 
as  a  scientific  man,  203  f.; 
biographies  of,  207  f . ;  Breakfast 
Table  Series,  The,  206  f . ;  educa 
tion  of,  203;  home  life  of,  204; 
humorous  verse  of,  205;  lyrics 
of,  204;  novels  of,  207;  portrait 
of,  201;  trip  to  Europe,  208; 
suggested  reading,  396 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  67  f . 

Horse-shoe  Robinson;  or,  A  Tale  of 
.  the  Tory  Ascendency,  291 

House  of  the  Seven  Gables,    The, 

I75f. 

y*Howe,  Julia  Ward,  232 
/  Howells,  William  Dean,  206,  239, 

242  ff.,  288,  344,  351 


The  Index 


411 


Huckleberry  Finn.  See  Adventures 
of  Huckleberry  Finn 

I  have  a  Rendezvous  "with  Death, 

140 
Ik  Marvel.     See  Mitchell,  Donald 

Grant 

Imagists,  236  ff.,  362 
Innocents  Abroad,  The,  325  f.,  327 
In  Ole  Virginia,  295 
Irradiations,  quoted,  362 
Irving,   Washington,   30,   80,    88, 

QO  ff.,    105,    145,    171,    182,    200, 

220,  262,  312,  325;  biographies 
by,  98,  100;  early-  life  and 
education  of,  90  ff. ;  essays  of, 
96  f.;  "Father  of  American 
Literature,"  90;  his  trips 
abroad,  92  f.,  94  ff.,  100; 
home  of,  98  ff . ;  Knickerbocker's 
History,  93  f . ;  longer  narratives 
of,  97  f. ;  portrait  of,  91;  sug 
gested  reading,  393 

Jackson,  Helen  Hunt,  369 

James,  Henry,  Jr.,  239,  242,  244  ff. 

James,  William,  244 

Jay,  John   54 

Jefferson,  Joseph,  95 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  44,  48,  54  ff., 
76,  88,  114,  248,  251,  313; 
Autobiography,  59;  characteris 
tics  and  life  of,  54,  56;  portrait 
of,  57;  state  papers  of,  56,  58; 
suggested  reading,  391 
x"Jewett,  Sarah  Orne,  329,  241  f. 

Jim  Bludso  of  the  Prairie  Belle, 
349;  extract,  350 

Johnston,  Mary,  291,  295 

Johnston,  Richard  Malcolm,  291, 
296  f. 

Jones,  Howard  Mumford,  352  f. 

Journal  of  John   Winthrop,    The, 
extract,  15  f. 

Journal,  Woolman's,  30,   31;  ex 
tract,  32 

Journals,  Emerson's,  163  f. 

Katie,  269 

Kennedy,    John    Pendleton,    250, 
290,  291  f. 

Key,  Francis  Scott,  282 


Kilmer,  Joyce,  139  f. 

King,  Grace,  291,  301 

Knickerbocker's  History  of  New 
York.  See  History  of  New 
York  by  Diedrich  Knickerbocker 

Knickerbocker  School,  88,  89,  94 

Lamar,  L.  Q.  C.,  253 
—"Lanier,  Sidney,  250,  265,  274  ff., 
286,  289,  344;  early  life  of, 
274  ff.;  as  a  lawyer,  277  f.;  as  a 
musician,  276,  278,  280;.  call  of, 
to  write,  276  f. ;  home  of,  279; 
last  days  of,  282;  lectures  of, 
on  literature,  280  f.;  portrait 
of,  275;  poems  of,  280,  281  f. ; 
prose  of,  281;  suggested  read 
ing,  398 

Larcom,  Lucy,  232 

Last  Leaf,  The,  204 

Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The,  107  f. 

Laurens,  Henry,  251 
;> Lazarus,  Emma,  139 

Leatherstocking  Tales,  104,  106, 
107  f. 

Leaves  of  Grass,  121  ff.,  356 

Lee,  Gerald  Stanley,  228,  229 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  251 

Lee,  Robert  Edward,  248  f. 

Leland,  Charles  Godfrey,  139 

Leonard,  Daniel,  52 

Letters  from  an  American  Farmer, 
The,  63  ff.;  extract,  64,  66 

Letters  from  a  Pennsylvania  Farmer 
to  the  Inhabitants  of  the  British 
Colonies,  53 

Life,  quoted,  351 

Life  and  Song,  274 

Life  of  Oliver  Goldsmith,  98 

Life  of  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  The, 
207  f. 

Life  of  Washington,  91,  98,  100 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  125,  221,  242, 
318,  319,  320,  365 

Lindsay,  Nicholas  Vachel,  348, 
360  f. 

London,  Jack,  371 

Longfellow,     Henry    Wadsworth, 

157,    167,    179  ff.,    199,    222,   225, 

344;  answer  to  critics  of,  190, 
192;  as  a  professor  at  Harvard, 
182;  as  a  teacher  at  Bowdoin, 


4I2 


The  Index 


Longfellow  (continued] : 

1 80;  death  of,  190;  dramatic 
works  of,  1 88;  early  poems  of, 
184;  estimate  of,  190;  European 
travel  of,  180  ff.,  188  ff.;  great 
narrative  poems  of,  184  ff.;  his 
translation  of  Dante,  188;  por 
trait  of,  1 8 1 ;  youth  and  educa 
tion  of,  1 80;  suggested  reading, 
396 

Longstreet,  Judge  Augustus  Bald 
win,  297 

Lovett,  Robert  M.,  346 

Lowell,  Amy,  234,  235  ff.;  por 
trait,  236 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  117,  122, 
156,  162,  182,  198,  205,  215  ff., 
344;  ancestry  of,  215;  annus 
mirabilis  of,  219  f.;  as  teacher 
and  talker,  222;  education  of, 
216;  essays  and  addresses  of, 
222  ff. ;  Fable  for  Critics,  A,  220; 
growth  of  fame  of ,  2 1 8  f . ;  home 
of,  223;  last  years,  224;  portrait 
of,  217;  representative  man  of 
letters,  215;  Vision  of  Sir  Laun- 
fal,  The,  220  f . ;  suggested  read 
ing,  397 

Mabie,  Hamilton  Wright,  142 

Mackaye,  Percy,  139 

Madison,  James,  54,  60,  75,  251 

Magnolia  Christi  Americana,  25 

Malone,  Judge  Walter,  289 

Manly,  John  M.,  346  f.,  348 

Man    with    the    Hoe,    The,    352; 

quoted,  353  f. 
Marble  Faun,  The,  177  f. 
Markham,  Edwin,  352,  353  f. 
Marshall,  John,  251 
Marshes  of  Glynn,  The,  281 
Martin,   George  Madden,   304  f. 
Masters,    Edgar    Lee,    234,    348, 

354  ff.;  portrait  of,  355 
Mather,    Cotton,   23,    24   ff.,   88; 

suggested  reading,  388 
Mather,  Increase,  23  f. 
Mather,  Richard,  18,  23 
McFingal,  70;  extract,  71  f. 
Meek,  Alexander  Beaufort,  283 
Memorable    Providences    Relating 

to  Witchcraft,  25 


Middle  Atlantic  States.nineteenth- 
century  literature  of,  89-148 

Miller,  Joaquin,  317,  320,  335  ff. ; 
cabin  and  lodge  of,  338;  esti 
mate  of,  338;  portrait  of,  337; 
visits  England,  336,  338;  wan 
derings  of,  335  f.;  suggested 
reading,  399 

Mitchell,  Donald  G.,  239,  240  f. 

Mitchell,  Silas  Weir,  145  f. 

Monroe,  Harriet,  356 

Moody,  William  Vaughn,  320, 
344  ff.;  acting  plays  of,  347;  as 
teacher  and  poet,  345  f.;  edu 
cation  of,  344  f. ;  estimate  of, 
344,  348;  poetic  dramas  of,  347; 
portrait  of,  345 ;  suggested  read 
ing,  400 

More,  Paul  Elmer,  144,  168 

Morris,  George  Pope,  138 

Morton,  Sarah,  81 

Morton,  Thomas,  16  f. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  225,  226  f., 
228 

Muir,  John,  317;  portrait  of,  143 

Murfree,  Mary  Noailles.  See 
Craddock,  Charles  Egbert 

My  Springs,  277 

Nathan  Hale,  extract,  67 

New  England,  annalists  and  his 
torians  of,  14  ff.;  colonial  litera 
ture  of,  12  ff. ;  early  poets  of, 
1 8  ff. ;  nineteenth-century  litera 
ture  of ,  89,  149  ff.;  theologians 
of,  22  ff.,  88 

New  England  Canaan,  The,  i6f. 

"New  Poetry,"  230,  234  ff.,  348  ff. 

New  South,  The,  253 

Norris,  Frank,  317,  363,  366  f. 

Norris,  Kathleen,  370 

Notes  on  Virginia,  58  f. 

Novel.     See  Fiction 

Nye,  Bill,  342 

Odyssey,  Bryant's  translation  of, 

116 

O'Hara,  Theodore,  283 
Optimism,    spirit   of   in   Western 

literature,  319 
Orators  of  the  Civil  War,  155  f., 

251  ff.;  of  the  Revolution,  48  ff. 


The  Index 


^Ossoli,  Margaret  Fuller.  See  Ful 
ler,  Margaret 

Otis,  James,  48,  49  f.,  88 

Outside  Reading,  suggestions  for, 
382  ff. 

Overland  Monthly,  The,  320,  332 

Over  the  Teacups,  206 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  250,  287, 
291,  295 

Paine,  Thomas,  60  ff.,  88;  sug 
gested  reading,  391 

Pamphlets,  17  f.,  44,  49,  52,  53, 
62,  63,  82 

Parker,  Theodore,  154,  156 

Parkman,  Francis,  227  f. 

Parsons,  Thomas  William,  233 

Pathfinder,  The,  108 

Paulding,  James  K.,  93 

Payne,  John  Howard,  138 
^Peabody,  Josephine  Preston,  139 

Peck,  Samuel  Minturn,  289 

Penn,  William,  30 

Percy,  William  Alexander,  290 

Personal  Recollections  of  Joan  of 
Arc,  330 

Phillips,  Wendell,  156 

Philosophy  of  Composition,  The, 
260  f. 

Piatt,  John  James,  242,  351 

Pierce,  Franklin,  170,  177,  178 

Pike,  Albert,  283  f. 

Pike  County  Ballads,  348,  349 

Pilot,  The,  104,  1 06 

Pinckney,  Charles,  251 

Pinkney,  Edward  Coate,  283 

Pinkney,  William,  251 

Pioneers,  The,  1 06,  107,  1 08 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  84,  171,  220, 
237,  248,  250,  253  ff.,  282,  290, 
291,  311,  312,  342;  birth  of,  254; 
classification  of  works  of,  260, 
262  f.;  as  critic,  260  f.;  edi 
torial  positions  of,  257  f.;  edu 
cation  of,  254,  256;  estimate  of 
character  of,  259  f.;  his  period 
of  wandering,  256;  last  days  of, 
259;  marriage  of,  257;  military 
experiences  of,  256  f . ;  poetry  of, 
257,  258  f.,  261  f.;  portrait  of, 
255;  short  stories  of,  257,  258, 
262  ff.;  suggested  reading,  397 


Poetry,  present-day   interest   in, 

372 
Poetry,  a  Magazine  of  Verse,  356, 

359,  361 
Ponteach,     or     The     Savages     of 

America,  79 
Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  33,   36, 

38  ff. 
Porter,     William     Sydney.       See 

Henry,  O. 
Prairie,  360 
Prairie,  The,  108 
Prescott,  William  H.,  85,  225  f., 

363 
Present  Crisis,  The,  218;    extract, 

218  f. 
•Preston,    Margaret   Junkin,    271, 

284 

Prince  and  the  Pauper,  The,  329 
Prince  of  Parthia,  The,  32,  79 
Prison  Ship,  The  British,  extract, 

76 
Professor  at  the  Breakfast   Table, 

The,  207 

Progress  of  Dulness,  The,  70 
Prophet  Jonah,  The,  75 
Pudd'nhead  Wilson,  329 

Quakers,  13,  30  f.,  38,  168,  192 

Ramona,  369 

Randall,  James  Ryder,  284 

Randolph,  John,  251 

Raven,  The,  258,  261,  262 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan,   139 

Reconstruction    Period,    318;    in 

literature,  295,  301 
Remington,  Frederic,  370 
Renaissance,    New   England's, 

149  ff.,  157 
Repplier,  Agnes,  142 
Reveries  of  a  Bachelor,  240 
Revolution,  American,  38,  45  ff.,. 

149 

Rhymes  to  be  Traded  for  Bread,  360 
Rice,  Alice  Hegan,  305 
Rice,  Cale  Young,  289,  305 
Richard  Carvel,  368,  369 
Richmond  as  a  literary  center,  247 
Rights  of  Man,  The,  63 
Rights    of    the    British     Colonies 

Asserted  and  Proved,  The,  49 


414 


The  Index 


Riley,     James     Whitcomb,     320, 

340  ff. ;   early  poems   of,   342; 
honors  accorded  to,   342,    344; 
popularity  of,  340  f.,  342;  por 
trait    of,    343;    wanderings    of, 

341  f.;  youth  of,  341;  suggested 
reading,  399 

Ripley,  George,  154 
Rip  Van  Winkle,  92,  95,  96 
Rise  of  Silas  Lapham,  The,  244 
Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,   The, 

226 

Robinson,  Edwin  Arlington,  234  f . 
Roe,  Edward  Payson,  148 
Rogers,  Robert,  79 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  144 
Roughing  It,  327 
Rowson,  Susanna,  81 
Russell,  Irwin,  286  ff.;  portrait  of, 

287 

Russell's  Magazine,  247,  268,  271 
Rutledge,  John,  251 
Ryan,    Abram    Joseph,    284    ff.; 

portrait  of,  285 

Salem  witchcraft,  17,  25,  168 
Sandburg,  Carl,  348,  258  ff. 
Sandys,  George,  8 
Saxe,  John  Godfrey,  233 
Scarlet  Letter,  The,  174  f.,  179 
Science  of  English  Verse,  The,  281 
Scollard,  Clinton,  139 
Seabury,  Samuel,  52 
Seashore,  165 

Seawell,  Molly  Elliot,  295 
Sedgwick,  Anne  Douglas,  148 
Seeger,  Alan,  139  f. 
Selling   of  Joseph;   A    Memorial, 

The,  17  f. 

Sewall,  Judge  Samuel,  17  f.;  sug 
gested  reading,  388 
Shakespeare,  William,  8,  33,  121, 

170,  224,  234,  310,  318 
Sherman,  Frank  Dempster,  139 
Short  story,  97,  239,  241,  242,  251, 

262  f.,  301,  303,  308,  311,  312 
Sill,  Edward  Rowland,  317,  348, 

350  f. 
Simms,    William    Gilmore,     247, 

250,  283,  290,  292  f. 
Simple  Cobler  of  Aggawamm,  The, 

22  f. 


Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry 

God,  29 
Sketch  Book,  The,  90,  94,  96,  105, 

182 

Slavery.     See  Abolition 
Sleepy    Hollow    Cemetery,     167, 

178,  214 

Smith,  C.  Alphonso,  306,  312 
Smith,   Captain  John,  3   ff.,   88; 

suggested  reading,  386 
Smith,   P.   Hopkinson,   250,   291, 

294  f . 

Smith,  Samuel  Francis,  233 
Snow-Bound,  194,  198,  199 
Snow  Image  and  Other  Twice-Told 

Tales,  The,  171,  176 
Some  Imagist  Poets,  237 
Son  of  the  Middle  Border,  A,  366 
Song  of  Myself,  121 
Song  of  the  Banjo,   The,  288 
South,     the,     colonial     literature 

of,    3    ff.,    88;    general    condi 
tions    of,    246   f.,    influence   of 

slavery  on,  248 ;  literary  centers 

of,  247  f.;  localism  of,  250,  294; 

nineteenth-century  literature  of, 

89,  246-312 
Southern  Literary  Messenger,  The, 

218,   247,    248,   257,   268,   271, 

284 

Spanish  Student,  The,  188 
Spectator,  34,  70,  93,  252 
Speech  on  Liberty,  50  f . ;  extract,  50 
Spoon   River   Anthology,    356    ff.; 

extracts,  356,  358 
Spy,  The,  104,  105,  106 
Standish,  Captain  Miles,   16 
Stanton,  Frank  Lebby,  289  f. 
Star-Spangled  Banner,  The,  282 
Stedman,  Edmund  Clarence,  140, 

230 

Stewart,  Charles  D.,  371 
Stith,  William,  9 
Stockton,  Frank  R.,  145,  146 
Stoddard,  Richard  Henry,   139 
Story  of  a  Bad  Boy,  The,  230,  231 
Story  of  the  Other  Wise  Man,  The, 

148 

Stowe,  Harriet  Beecher,  239  f. 
Strachey,  William,  6,  8 ;  suggested 

reading,  386 
Stuart,  Ruth  McEnery,  291,  301 


The  Index 


Summary    View  of  the  Rights  of 

America,  A,  56 
Sumner,  Charles,  156 
Sunnyside,  Irving's  home,  98  ff. 
Sunrise,  281 

Surry  of  Eagle's  Nest,  293 
Swamp  Fox,  The,  283 

Tabb,  John  Bannister,  289 

Tales  of  a  Traveler,  96 

Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  187 

Tanglewood  Tales,  176 

Tarkington,.  Newton  Booth,    371 

Taylor,  Bayard,  116,  140,  230,  325 

Teasdale,  Sara,  352  f. 

Tenth  Muse  Lately  Sprung  up  in 
America;  Or  Several  Poems, 
Compiled  with  Great  Variety  of 
Wit  and  Learning,  The,  20;  ex 
tract,  20 

Terminus,  166;  extract,  166 

Thanatopsis,  112,  115,  116,  117 

Thanet,  Octave,  370 

Thaxter,  Celia,  233 

Their  Story  Runneth  Thus,  285  f. 

Theology,  Calvinistic,  12,  13,  21, 
27,  28,  29,  88,  149,  150,  151; 
Unitarian,  149  ff.,  155 

Thompson,  John  Reuben,  248, 
284 

Thompson,  Maurice,  272,  351,  370 

Thoreau,  Henry  David,  152,  154, 
!57,  J97,  208  ff.,  216;  death  of, 
214  f.;  early  life  of,  209  f.; 
first  published  volume  of,  213; 
friendship  with  Emerson,  212; 
personality  of,  211  f. ;  pioneer 
nature  writer,  208;  portrait  of, 
209;  published  books  of,  214; 
simple  method  of  life  of,  211; 
Walden,  or  Life  in  the  Woods, 
212,  214;  Walden  Pond,  resi 
dence  of,  212  f. ;  suggested 
reading,  397 

Thoreau' s  Journals,  214 

Three  Fates,  The,  147 

Threnody,  166 

Ticknor,  Francis  Orray,  284 

Ticknor,  George,  225 

Tiger  Lilies,  277 

Timrod,  Henry,  247,  250,  265  ff., 
283,  292;  death  of,  270;  early 


poems  of,  268;  education  of, 
266;'  effects  of  the  war  on,  269  f. ; 
friendship  with  Hayne,  266, 
270;  growing  fame  of,  265,  269; 
marriage  of,  269;  portrait  of, 
267;  too  harsh  criticism  of,  265, 
266;  war  poetry  of,  268  f. ; 
suggested  reading,  398 

To  a  Waterfowl,  in  f.,  115,  117 

Tom  Sawyer,  322,  327  ff. 

Transcendentalism,  27,  149, 151  fif., 
208,  233,  239 

Trent,  Professor  William  P.,  98, 
252 

True  Relation  of  Some  Occurrences 
and  Accidents  of  Noate  as  Hath 
Hapned  since  the  First  Plant 
ing  of  the  Colony,  A ,  3  f . 

True  Repertory  of  the  Wracke  and 
Redemption  of  Sir  Thomas 
Gates,  Knight,  upon  and  from 
the  Hands  of  the  Bermudas,  6,  8 

Trumbull,  John,  69  fif. ;  early  writ 
ings  of,  70;  McFingal,  70  ff. ; 
youth  and  education,  69;  sug 
gested  reading,  392 

Twain,  Mark,  141,  317,  319, 
320  ff.,  342,  344;  a  creative 
genius,  320;  Adventures  of  Huck 
leberry  Finn,  329 ;  as  a  lecturer, 
326  f.,  330;  as  printer  and  river 
pilot,  322  f.;  Gilded  Age,  The, 
327;  his  experiences  in  the  Far 
West,  323  ff.;  honors  accorded, 
330  f.;  Innocents  Abroad,  The, 
325  f. ;  journalistic  work  of,  326; 
marriage  of,  326;  origin  of  pen 
name  of,  324;  other  important 
works  of,  329  f . ;  portrait  of,  32 1 , 
328;  Roughing  It,  327;  Tom 
Sawyer,  327  ff. ;  suggested  read 
ing,  399 

Twice-Told  Tales,  171  f.,  260 

Two  Years  before  the  Mast,  240 

Tyler,  Moses  Coit,  8,  9,  48,  53,  60 

Tyler,  Royall,  80 

Uncle  Remus,  298,  300 

Uncle  Tom's   Cabin,  239  f.,  363, 

369 

Under  the  Old  Elm,  222 
Unitarianism,  149  ff.,  155 


416 


The  Index 


van  Dyke,  Henry,  139,  149,  148 
Very,  Jones,  233 
Village  Blacksmith,  The,  184,  190 
Virginia,  University  of,  59 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,   The,  219, 

220  f.;  extract,  221 
Voluntaries,  extract,  166 

Walden,  or  Life  in  the  Woods,  212, 

214 

Wallace,  General  Lew,  363  f. 
Walt  Whitman,  a  Study,  142 
Wanted,  quoted,  232 
Ward,    Elizabeth   Stuart   Phelps, 

241 

Ward,  Nathaniel,  22  f. 
Ward,  William  Hayes,  282  _ 
War   Message   Address    (Wilson), 

144 

Warner,    Charles    Dudley,     140, 
327 


~?  Warren,  Mercy,  79 
Washington,  George,  38,  47,  59  f., 

88,  182,  222,  248,  251;  Farewell 
Address  of,  59  f.;  portrait  of,  61 

Wayside,  The,  Hawthorne's  home, 

177 
Webster,   Daniel,    no,   156,    198, 

253 
Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merri- 

mack  Rivers,  A,  213 
Wendell,    Professor    Barrett,    25, 

28,  157 

Wescott,  Edward  Noyes,  148 
West,  the,  character  of  literature 

of,  315  ff.  ;  expansion  toward, 

313  ff.;  meaning  of  term,  312; 

publishing     centers     of,      319; 

nineteenth-century  literature  of, 

89,  312-371 

Westminster  Abbey,  Poet's  Cor 

ner,  190,  191 
Wharton,  Edith,  148 
White,  Stewart  Edward,  371 
White,  William  Allen,  371 
Whitman,  Walt,  90,  118  ff.,  142, 
212,   237,   322,   356,   358,   359; 
early  life  of,  118;  his  period  of 
self-development,    120;    in   the 
Civil  War,  124;  in  Washington, 


124;  later  development  of,  121; 
later  life  and  death  of,  124  f.; 
Leaves  of  Grass,  121  ff.;  literary 
position  of,  118,  126;  message 
and  personality  of,  125  f. ;  por 
trait  of,  119;  "I  hear  America 
singing,"  quoted,  373  f.;  sug 
gested  reading,  395 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  31,  122, 
!56,  157,  192  ff.,  220;  early  life 
of,  194  f.;  first  published  poem 
of,  195  f. ;  further  education  of, 
196  f. ;  his  attachment  to  cause 
of  abolition,  197;  poems  of,  198 
ff.;  "Poet  Laureate"  of  New 
England,  192,  194;  poetry  of, 
classified,  198;  portrait  of,  193; 
success  of,  197  f.;  suggested 
reading,  396 

Wieland,  or  The  Transformation, 

83  f. 
^>Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas,  148 

Wigglesworth,  Michael,  13,  20  ff., 
33;  suggested  reading,  389 

Wilde,  Richard  Henry,  283 

Wild   Honeysuckle,    The,    quoted, 

77  f-  . 

William  Wilson,  256,  265 
Willis,  Nathaniel  Parker,  140 
Wilson,  Robert  Burns,  289 
Wilson,  Woodrow,  144 
Winslow,  Edward,  14 
Winter,  William,  142 
Winthrop,  Governor  John,   15  f.; 

suggested  reading,  387 
Wirt,  William,  50,  252 
Wister,  Owen,  148 
Wonder-Book,  The,  176 
Woodberry,  George  Edward,  234, 

319 

Wood  worth,  Samuel,  138 
Woolman,    John,    30,    31    f.,    38; 

suggested  reading,  389 
Wordsworth,    William,    77,    no, 

112,  125  f.,  152,  160 
Wren's  Nest,    The,  home  of  Joel 

Chandler  Harris,  298 

Yankee  Doodle,  extract,  66 
Young,  Stark,  290 


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JU  J57T7 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


